PATTERN RECOGNITION BY HUMANS AND MACHINES: SPEECH PERCEPTION

By ABIGAIL JOHNSON

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 1 THE PLAN OF THIS BOOK? 1 THE INSPIRATION AND BACKGROUND OF THIS STUDY? 2 SECTION 1 WORDS AND THEIR DYNAMISM HOW WE ARE ABLE TO MAKE AN INFINITE USE OF FINITE MEANS ? 7 SECTION 2 SEEKING A PERSPECTIVE APPROPRIATE TO THE PHENOMENA? 11 SECTION 3 THE ROLE OF PRAGMATICS IN SEMANTICS AT EVERY LAYER OF MEANING WITHIN DISCOURSE? 25 SECTION 4 GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES AS A PROJECTION OF SEMANTIC STRUCTURES? 36 SECTION 5 THE NOVELTY OF CHOMSKY S CONCEPTION OF FORMAL GRAMMAR? 47 SECTION 6 THE VERBAL OR SAYING CHARACTER OF SPEECH AS THE KEY TO GRAMMAR? 59 PROSPECT 66 PART ONE WORDS AND THEIR DYNAMISM IN THE EXPRESSION OF MEANING CHAPTER I TWO LEVELS OF MEANING THE LEVEL OF LANGUAGE POSSESSION AND THE LEVEL OF LANGUAGE USE 71 THE NOTION OF LINGUISTIC UNDERSTANDING PRELIMINARY REMARKS? 71 SECTION 1 THE TWO LEVELS OF LINGUISTIC UNDERSTANDING? 75 SECTION 2 WORDS AND SENTENCES THE RELATION OF THE TWO LEVELS? 81 SECTION 3 HOW EXPRESSING A SENSE DIFFERS FROM OTHER FORMS OF EXPRESSING ? 88 SECTION 4 DISTINGUISHING LANGUE MEANING AND PAROLE MEANING AS THE KEY TO ESCAPING COMPOSITIONALISM? 90 SECTION 5 HOW WE ACHIEVE AN INFINITE USE OF FINITE MEANS ? 105 CHAPTER II THE SALIENCE OF WORDS AND OUR ADVENTUROUSNESS IN USING THEM 113 SECTION 1 WORDS AND BASIC LEXICAL FACTORS? 113 SECTION 2 TYPES OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIFFERENT USES OF THE SAME WORD? 120 SECTION 3 THE ROOTS OF CREATIVE ANALOGY IN EXTENDING THE CONCEPT OF NUMBER? 140 SUMMARY THE POWER OF EXAMPLES IN DEMONSTRATION ? 149 APPENDIX MORPHOLOGY AND ITS BEARING ON SEMANTICS? 150 CHAPTER III SENTENCES SENSE AND THE OBJECTS OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE 158 THE CONCEPTS OF SENTENCE AND SENSE BELONG AT THE SPEECH ACT LEVEL? 158 SECTION 1 THE NOTIONS OF SENTENCE AND SENSE SENSE NOT TIED TO TRUTH CONDITIONS? 159 SECTION 2 THE SPEECH ACT CONVERGENCE OF PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY WITH AN OLDER LINGUISTICS? 168 SECTION 3 THE SENSE OF SUBORDINATE SENTENCE CONSTITUENTS? 176 SECTION 4 TWO OPPOSITE CONCEPTIONS OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE THE RADICAL NOVELTY OF CHOMSKY S APPROACH? 193 SUMMARY? 210 CHAPTER IV THE INDIVISIBILITY OF THE HUMAN CAPACITY FOR LANGUAGE 219 THE INTERDPENDENCE OF THE VARIOUS SEMANTIC STRUCTURES WITHIN LANGUAGE 219 SECTION 1 THE UNITY AND INTEGRATEDNESS OF LINGUISTIC CAPACITY STRUCTURE AND SELF REFLEXIVITY? 221 SECTION 2 THE IMPORTANCE OF THIS HOLISM IN SEMANTICS SCRUTINIZING ORDINARY LANGUAGE ? 227 SECTION 3 THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN THE THEORY OF HUMAN NATURE? 233 SECTION 4 THIS SEMANTIC STRUCTURE AS THE FEATURE SPECIFIC TO LANGUAGE OF THE HUMAN TYPE? 241 CHAPTER V SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MATHEMATICS FOR LINGUISTICS 243 SECTION 1 MISTAKEN PRESUMPTIONS ABOUT WHAT SCIENTIFIC METHOD REQUIRES? 243 SECTION 2 THE INFORMALITY OF THE CONCEPT OF RULE? 250 SECTION 3 THE UNFORMALIZABILITY OF NATURAL LANGUAGE AND THE INFORMALITY OF ITS CONCEPTS? 253 SECTION 4 THE CONCEPT OF EFFECTIVENESS AND THE PLACE OF MECHANICAL PROCEDURES IN MATHEMATICS? 260 SECTION 5 THE RELEVANCE OF THIS CONSIDERATION OF MATHEMATICAL METHOD TO LINGUISTICS? 279 PART TWO THE SHAPE OF THE PSYCHOLOGY REQUIRED FOR EXPLAINING THE LEARNING AND USE OF LANGUAGE CHAPTER VI HUMAN AND ANIMAL ORGANISMS AS SYSTEMS DYNAMICALLY GEARED TO THE ENVIRONMENT 295 MECHANISMS IN A HOLISTIC AND TELEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK 295 SECTION 1 HUMAN BEINGS AS INTEGRATED UNITIES GIBSON S WORK AS A KEY TO ESCAPING PHYSICALISM? 296 SECTION 2 MECHANICAL PROCESSES IN LIVING ORGANISMS MECHANICAL AN AMBIGUOUS WORD? 312 SECTION 3 GIBSON S TREATMENT OF PERCEPTION AS A MODEL FOR THE TREATMENT OF LANGUAGE? 322 APPENDIX BEING MISLED BY ANOMALIES IN OUR EXPERIENCE OF TIME AND OF SENSORY QUALIA? 336 CHAPTER VII EXTENDING THE DYNAMIC AND ENVIRONMENT GEARED MODEL OF HUMAN FUNCTIONING TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAGE 346 SECTION 1 DIFFICULTIES IN APPLYING THE IDEA OF MODULARITY TO LANGUAGE? 346 SECTION 2 THE HUMAN LEARNING OF LANGUAGE RELIES ON MULTI MODAL PERCEPTION? 352 SECTION 3 THE SHAPE OF AN INTEGRATED VIEW OF THE LANGUAGE FACULTY AND ITS TUNING ? 356 CHAPTER VIII UNDERSTANDING AS ESSENTIAL TO EXPLAINING SPEECH RESISTING THE DRAG TOWARDS PHYSICALISM 366 SECTION 1 THE INCOHERENCE IN DIVIDING THE INNER FROM THE OUTER IN LANGUAGE? 366 SECTION 2 CONCEIVING OF SENTENCES OR THOUGHTS AS REPRESENTING REALITY A MISTAKE REVIVED? 382 SECTION 3 SENTENCE MEANINGS CANNOT BE ISOMORPHIC WITH EITHER EXTERNAL OR INTERNAL STATES? 393 CONCLUSION? 396 PART THREE REWRITING THE PHILOSOPHY OF GRAMMAR AND RESTORING UNITY TO THE THEORY OF LANGUAGE CHAPTER IX EXPLAINING THE SEMANTIC UNITY OF THE SENTENCE THE SHARED ROOTS OF THE TOPIC COMMENT SUBJECT PREDICATE AND NOUN VERB DISTINCTIONS 399 SECTION 1 THE BASIS FOR A THEORY OF HOW LINGUISTIC UTTERANCES ARE INTEGRATED? 400 SECTION 2 ASYMMETRY BETWEEN NAMES AND OTHER SENTENCE FACTORS SENSE AND REFERENCE ? 407 SECTION 3 VERBS AS GIVING PREDICATES THEIR VERBAL CHARACTER THE WAY VERBS ARE LEARNED? 429 SECTION 4 NEGATION AND ITS SPECIAL CHARACTER? 439 CHAPTER X THE GULF BETWEEN SAYING AND NAMING THE VERBAL AND THE NOMINAL FORCE POTENTIAL AS INTEGRAL TO SENSE 446 SECTION 1 FULL SENTENCES DISTINGUISHED FROM CLAUSES IN? GENERAL RELATION OF FORCE TO SENSE? 446 SECTION 2 DISAGREEMENTS ABOUT FORCE WITTGENSTEIN S OPPOSITION TO FREGE? 453 SECTION 3 GEACH S ARGUMENTS? 458 SECTION 4 DUMMETT S INTERPRETATION OF FREGE S NOTION OF SINN AND ITS DIFFICULTIES? 471 SECTION 5 RECOVERING THE TRADITION SAYING IS NOT NAMING? 475 CHAPTER XI THE NOTION OF SUBJECT AND THE FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CLAUSE 487 SECTION 1 DISENTANGLING LINGUISTICS FROM ITS HISTORICAL BACKGROUND? 488 SECTION 2 THE NOTION OF GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT? 496 SECTION 3 THE NOTION OF GRAMMATICAL OBJECT DIFFERENT OPTIONS IN STRUCTURING SPEECH? 518 CHAPTER XII MARRYING PHILOSOPHY AND GRAMMAR IN DISTINGUISHING TYPES OF NOUN EXPRESSION 528 SECTION 1 THE VARIED TYPES OF MEANING OF ABSTRACT NOUNS? 528 SECTION 2 UNRAVELING PLATO S PROBLEMS AS THE KEY TO RESOLVING PROBLEMS IN SEMANTICS? 538 SECTION 3 THE VALUE OF THE NOTIONS OF COGNATE AND COGNITIONAL COGNATE? 553 SECTION 4 THE NOTION OF COGNITIONAL COGNATE AND THE INCOHERENCE OF REPRESENTATIONALISM? 568 CONCLUDING REMARK CONFIRMATION THAT TO DESCRIBE CANNOT BE TO REPRESENT OR DENOTE? 574 CHAPTER XIII VARIED SYSTEMS OF GRAMMATICALIZATION REVIEWING THE PHENOMENA 575 SECTION 1 THEMATIC ROLES AND HOW THEY ARISE? 575 SECTION 2 MAKING THE WAY THEMATIC ELEMENTS ARE INTEGRATED INTO THE SENTENCE EXPLICIT? 582 SECTION 3 PARAMETERS AND BRACKETING? 591 SECTION 4 COMPARING LANGUAGES AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT INSTRUCTIVE FOR GRAMMAR? 603 SECTION 5 THE TREATMENT OF REFERENCE AND THE PROBLEMS OF WH QUESTIONS? 609 SECTION 6 THE PARASENTENTIAL LEVEL THE INTERPLAY OF LOGIC AND GRAMMAR IN MODALITY AND REASONING? 622 SECTION 7 SOME COMPARISONS BETWEEN DIFFERENT TYPES OF GRAMMAR FORMAL AND FUNCTIONAL? 632 SECTION 8 OPTIMIZATION IN ANALYZING SENTENCES UNDERSTOOD IN CONTEXT? 639 CHAPTER XIV THE VERB GIVES SENTENCES THEIR DYNAMIC CHARACTER AND SHAPES THEIR SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE 643 SECTION 1 THE VERB AT THE HEART OF A CLAUSE GIVES STRUCTURE TO THE WHOLE? 645 SECTION 2 AUXILIARIES SEMI AUXILIARIES AND ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS? 666 SECTION 3 COMPLEMENTS AND ADJUNCTS AND THE CHARACTER OF ADPOSITIONS? 677 SECTION 4 TYPES OF FUNCTIONAL COMPLEMENT TO VERBS? 688 SECTION 5 CLAUSE MARKERS AND TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSE? 695 CHAPTER XV THE DISTORTED TREATMENT OF PHRASE THEORY IN MODERN FORMAL GRAMMAR 705 SECTION 1 A PRELIMINARY KINDS OF OF PHRASES? 706 SECTION 2 THREE LEVELS OF ISOMORPHISM WHEN A NOUN OR ADJECTIVE PHRASE IS VERBALLY ROOTED? 715 SECTION 3 THE MISCONCEPTIONS EMBODIED IN THE X BAR PRESENTATION OF PHRASE THEORY? 723 GENERAL CONCLUSION 745