THE SCIENCE OF ROAD MAKING: CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF ROADS
CONTENTS INTRODUCTION RESEARCH BACKGROUND AND SIGNI?CANCE CHINA’S EMISSION REDUCTION TARGETS AND ACTIONS THE DEVELOPMENT STATUS OF HIGHWAY TUNNEL INDUSTRY IN CHINA RESEARCH BACKGROUNDS OF THE TUNNEL EMISSION REDUCTION RESEARCH STATUS AND REVIEW RESEARCH PROGRESS ON CARBON EMISSIONS FROM TUNNELS LCA FRAMEWORK FOR THE CARBON EMISSIONS OF TUNNELS RESEARCH PROGRESS ON LCA UNCERTAINTY EXISTING PROBLEMS MAIN RESEARCH CONTENT REFERENCES CARBON EMISSION QUANTI?CATION THEORY AND MODULAR LCA METHOD BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF CARBON EMISSIONS GREENHOUSE GASES CARBON EXCHANGE PATHWAY BASIC METHODS FOR QUANTIFYING CARBON EMISSIONS DIRECT MEASUREMENT METHOD THE PROCESS ANALYSIS METHOD THE INPUT–OUTPUT METHOD THE HYBRID METHOD OVERVIEW OF LCA OBJECTIVES AND STEPS FUNCTIONAL UNIT AND REFERENCE FLOW PRODUCT SYSTEM AND UNIT PROCESS SYSTEM BOUNDARY DATA COLLECTION AND CALCULATION ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS AND ASSESSMENT METHODS MAIN FEATURES OF LCA OVERVIEW OF PRODUCT MODULARIZATION CONCEPT OF MODULARIZATION MODULAR LCA METHOD CONCLUSIONS CARBON EMISSION PREDICTION METHOD FOR TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION METHOD POTENTIAL FACTORS AFFECTING TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION EMISSIONS OVERVIEW OF THE TUNNELS CALCULATION METHOD FOR TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION EMISSIONS COMMON PREDICTION MODELS DATA ANALYSIS METHOD RESULTS CARBON EMISSIONS OF TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION FACTORS IN?UENCING CARBON EMISSIONS FROM TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION MODELS PREDICTING CARBON EMISSIONS FROM TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION DISCUSSION A MODULAR CALCULATION METHOD FOR THE CARBON EMISSIONS OF HIGHWAY TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION BASED ON THE CHINESE STANDARD QUOTA METHODS AND DATA GOAL AND SCOPE INVENTORY ANALYSIS SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF SETTINGS FOR MATERIAL TRANSPORTATION, COLLECTION, AND PROCESSING RESULTS AND DISCUSSION INVENTORIES OF INPUT AND CARBON EMISSIONS FOR PRIMITIVES CASE STUDY SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS CONCLUSION UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS OF CARBON EMISSIONS FROM HIGHWAY TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS METHOD DATA QUALITY INDICATOR PARAMETER PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION MONTE CARLO SIMULATION MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATION SCENARIO ANALYSIS UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS OF CARBON EMISSIONS OF UNIT ENGINEERING QUANTITY PARAMETER VALUE SAMPLE SIZE UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS OF PRIMITIVES’ CARBON EMISSIONS PRIMITIVE CARBON EMISSION FITTING UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS OF CARBON EMISSIONS FROM LINING CONSTRUCTION MODEL UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS PARAMETER UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS ANALYSIS OF SCENARIO UNCERTAINTY CARBON EMISSION TRANSITION OF HIGHWAY TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND MATERIALS ROCK MASS GRADES AND LINING DESIGNS INVENTORY DATA EVALUATION INDEXES FOR TUNNEL EMISSION INCREMENT CARBON EMISSION EVALUATION TRANSITION PATH ANALYSIS OF THE TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION EMISSION IN?UENCE OF TUNNEL LINING DESIGN PARAMETERS ON CONSTRUCTION CARBON EMISSIONS CARBON EMISSION VARIATION CHARACTERISTICS OF TWO-LANE HIGHWAY TUNNEL LINING TWO-LANE HIGHWAY TUNNEL LINING DESIGN SPECI?CATIONS AND CASE DESIGN PARAMETERS TYPICAL TWO-LANE HIGHWAY TUNNEL SUPPORT MODEL EFFECT OF CHANGE OF LINING DESIGN PARAMETERS ON CARBON EMISSIONS OF TWO-LANE TUNNELS CHANGES IN CARBON EMISSIONS FROM EXCAVATION AND SUPPORT OF THREE-LANE HIGHWAY TUNNELS CARBON EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF THREE-LANE HIGHWAY TUNNEL LINING A CALCULATION MODEL FOR CONCRETE LINING OF A THREE-LANE TUNNEL IN?UENCE OF CHANGES IN LINING PARAMETERS OF A THREE-LANE TUNNEL ON CARBON EMISSIONS CARBON EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF INCLINED SHAFT CONSTRUCTION IN HIGHWAY TUNNEL PROJECT PRO?LE CALCULATION METHOD AND INVENTORY DATA CARBON EMISSION FROM INCLINED SHAFT CONSTRUCTION ENERGY CARBON EMISSIONS FROM VARIOUS MATERIALS CARBON EMISSIONS FROM CONSTRUCTION PROCESS EFFECT OF INCLINED SHAFT LENGTH AND SLOPE ON CARBON EMISSION FROM EXCAVATION AND SLAGGING IN?UENCING FACTORS AND INVENTORY DATA IN?UENCE OF INCLINED SHAFT SLOPE ON CARBON EMISSIONS OF CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY IN EXCAVATION PROCESS EFFECT OF SLOPE OF INCLINED SHAFT ON CARBON EMISSIONS FROM SLAGGING IN?UENCE OF INCLINED SHAFT LENGTH ON CARBON EMISSIONS FROM EXCAVATION AND SLAGGING CHAPTER CHINA’S EMISSION REDUCTION TARGETS AND ACTIONS WITH THE LARGE-SCALE UTILIZATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND FOSSIL ENERGY BY HUMANS, THE FOSSIL ENERGY BURIED IN THE GROUND IS RAPIDLY CONSUMED THE CARBON SEQUESTERED IN SOLIDS ENTERS THE AIR ENVIRONMENT WITH COMBUSTION ACTIVITIES, CAUSING CARBON DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION IN THE GLOBAL ATMOSPHERE TO INCREASE DRAMATICALLY THE LARGE-SCALE USE OF FOSSIL FUELS IS CONSIDERED THE MAIN REASON FOR THE INCREASE IN GLOBAL TEMPERATURE [123] IN RESPONSE TO THE IMPACT OF GLOBAL WARMING ON THE ECOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN LIFE, MAJOR COUNTRIES WORLDWIDE HAVE JOINTLY SIGNED THE “PARIS AGREEMENT”, COMMITTED TO CONTROLLING THE GLOBAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURE RISE WITHIN 2 °C IN THIS CENTURY IN 2009, CHINA PROPOSED THAT BY 2020 CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS PER UNIT OF GDP WOULD BE REDUCED BY 40–45% COMPARED TO THAT OF 2005; NON-FOSSIL ENERGY WOULD ACCOUNT FOR ABOUT 15% OF PRIMARY ENERGY CONSUMPTION, AND FOREST AREAS AND FOREST STOCK WOULD INCREASE BY 40 MILLION HA AND 1 3 BILLION M3 RESPECTIVELY COMPARED WITH THOSE IN 2005 IN 2015, THE NATIONAL INDEPENDENT CONTRIBUTION TARGET WAS FURTHER PROPOSED: CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS WOULD REACH THE PEAK AROUND 2030 AS SOON AS POSSIBLE; CARBON INTENSITY WOULD BE REDUCED BY 60–65% IN COMPARISON WITH THAT IN 2005; THE PROPORTION OF NON-FOSSIL ENERGY IN PRIMARY ENERGY CONSUMPTION WOULD REACH 20%; FOREST STOCK WOULD INCREASE BY APPROXIMATELY 4 5 BILLION M3 COMPARED WITH THAT IN 2005 IN 2020, THE CHINESE GOVERNMENT PLEDGED TO STRIVE FOR THE PEAK OF CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS BY 2030 AND ACHIEVE CARBON NEUTRALITY BY 2060, WHICH INDICATED CHINA’S COMMITMENT FOR THE ROAD EMISSION REDUCTION TO ACHIEVE ITS EMISSION REDUCTION TARGETS, CHINA REGARDS ADAPTATION TO THE CLIMATE CHANGE AS AN ESSENTIAL NATIONAL STRATEGY TO RESPOND ACTIVELY TO THE CLIMATE CHANGE CHINA HAS CONSTANTLY STRENGTHENED METEOROLOGICAL DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF CLIMATE RESILIENCE INFRASTRUCTURE FOR FARMLAND WATER CONSERVANCY AND IMPROVED ECOSYSTEM SERVICES SUCH AS FORESTS, GRASSLANDS, AND WETLANDS TO STRENGTHEN SOURCE INDC SCENARIO RESULTS CALCULATED BY PECE MODEL OF CHINA CLIMATE STRATEGY CENTER AND RENMIN UNIVERSITY OF CHINA CONTINUOUSLY ADAPTATION ACTIONS AND PRACTICES BESIDES, CHINA HAS TAKEN SEVERAL MEASURES TO BRING TOGETHER THE MAJESTIC FORCES TO ACHIEVE THE GOALS OF INDEPENDENT CONTRIBUTION:ADJUSTINGTHEINDUSTRIALSTRUCTURE;OPTIMIZINGTHEENERGYSTRUCTURETOSAVE ENERGY AND RESOURCES; IMPROVING THE EF?CIENCY OF ENERGY RESOURCE UTILIZATION; DEVEL- OPING NON-FOSSIL POWER TO RESTORE THE NATURAL ECOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT; CONSERVING FORESTS TO INCREASE CARBON; AND DEVELOPING THE CARBON MARKET TABLE 1 1 LISTS CHINA’S ACTION FORECASTS ON ENERGY CONSERVATION AND EMISSION REDUCTION ESTABLISHINGAUNI?EDCARBONEMISSIONTRADINGMARKETINCHINAISANESSENTIALINSTI- TUTIONAL INNOVATION THAT CONTROLS AND REDUCES GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS AND PROMOTES THE GREEN AND LOW-CARBON ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT TRANSFORMATION WITH MARKET MECHA- NISM SINCE THE LAUNCH OF CHINA’S CARBON EMISSIONS TRADING MARKET AT THE END OF 2017, IT HAS HAD A WIDE RANGE OF IN?UENCES IN THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY AND ATTRACTED MUCH ATTENTION CHINA’S ?RST CARBON EMISSIONS TRADING MARKET WAS ESTABLISHED IN SHENZHEN CITY THE CARBON EMISSIONS TRADING SYSTEM COVERS 40% OF THE CITY’S TOTAL CARBON EMISSIONS THE CUMULATIVE TRADING VOLUME OF ALLOWANCES IS 18 07 MILLION TONS, AND THE CUMULA- TIVE TRADING VOLUME IS 596 MILLION YUAN IN 2016, THE MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL SCOPE EXPANDED TO 881 COMPANIES, WHICH IS CURRENTLY ONE OF THE PILOT REGIONS WITH THE LARGEST NUMBER OF COMPANIES, THE MOST ACTIVE TRANSACTIONS, AND THE MOST SIGNI?CANT EMISSION REDUCTION EFFECT ACCORDING TO STATISTICS, COMPARED WITH THE LEADING DOMESTIC GROUPS OF SIMILAR TYPES IN CHINA, THE CARBON EMISSION INTENSITY OF COAL POWER IN SHENZHEN HAS DROPPED BY 2 5%, WHILE THE GAS POWER HAS FALLEN SHARPLY BY 8 9% AND THE OVERALL CARBON EMIS- SION INTENSITY OF THE POWER SECTOR HAS DECREASED BY ABOUT 10% IN THE SAME PERIOD, THE AVERAGE CARBON INTENSITY OF MANUFACTURING ENTERPRISES CONTROLLED BY THE CARBON EMISSIONS TRADING SYSTEM, DECREASED WITH A PERCENTAGE OF 34 8%, FROM 0 43 TONS OF CO2/10,000 CNY TO 0 29 TONS OF CO2/10,000 CNY THROUGH PILOT PROJECTS, THE RATE OF REDUCTION IN CARBON EMISSIONS PER UNIT OF GDP AND THE RATE OF ECONOMIC GROWTH IN CHINA WERE INCREASED CONSTANTLY IN HUBEI