MONITORING AND REMEDIATION WELLS
1 Conducting Groundwater Quality Investigations 1 11 Introduction 1 12 Evolution of Site Assessments 2 13 Technology Limitations and Cleanup Goals 14 14 Conceptual Models 14 141 Source and Release Information 15 142 Geologic and Hydrogeologic Characterization 16 143 Contaminant Distribution, Transport and Fate 17 144 Geochemistry Impacting Natural Biodegradation 17 15 Risk Assessment Concepts 18 16 Institutional Controls 20 17 Risk-Based Cleanup Goals and Screening Level Evaluations 20 18 Assessing Plume Migration Potential 25 2 The Family of DNAPLs 37 21 Defining DNAPL 37 22 Chemicals and Origins 38 221 Creosote and Coal Tars 38 222 Polychlorinated Biphenyls 41 223 Chlorinated Solvents 44 224 Mixtures 48 23 DNAPL Behavior 49 231 General Behavior and Concepts 49 232 Important Parameters for Site Characterization 56 24 Overview of Remediation Strategies 59 241 Remediation Goals 59 242 Technologies 63 2421 Pump-and-Treat 63 2422 Permeable Reactive Barriers 63 2423 Physical Barriers 64 2424 Enhanced Biodegradation 64 2425 Thermal Technologies 64 2426 Chemical Flushing 65 2427 Excavation and Removal 65 2428 Soil Vacuum Extraction 66 2429 Water Flooding 66 24210 Air Sparging 66 3 Hydrocarbons 69 31 Fate and Transport 69 311 General 69 312 Advective Transport 70 313 Dispersion 70 314 Sorption 71 315 Dilution and Recharge 73 316 Volatilization 73 32 Gasoline Compounds 74 321 General Description 74 322 The BTEX Compounds and MTBE 74 323 Properties of VOCs 75 324 Degradation 75 325 Half-Lifes 77 33 Pump and Treat 79 331 Concept 79 332 Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids 85 333 Contaminant Desorption and Precipitate Dissolution 86 334 Remedial Technologies 87 335 EPA Cost Data for Pump-and-Treat 89 4 1,4-Dioxane 95 41 Overview 95 42 Properties, Fate and Transport 98 43 Health Effects and Regulations 103 44 Remediation Technologies 104 441 Advanced Oxidation (Ex Situ) 109 442 Adsorption (GAC) (Ex Situ) 113 443 Bioremediation 113 444 Treatment in Soil 114 5 Perfluorinated Compounds (PFCS) 117 51 Overview 117 52 Origins of the Contaminants 118 53 PFAs Properties and Structures 121 531 General Description 121 532 Variations of PFAS 123 533 PFOS 126 534 PFOA 129 54 Environmental Fate and Transport 130 55 Groundwater Contamination 144 56 Water Treatment 149 57 Estimating Carbon Treatement Costs 157 6 Chlorinated Solvents 163 61 Physico-Chemical Properties of Chlorinated Solvents 163 62 Origins of Groundwater Contamination 167 63 Fate and Transport 168 631 Properties 168 632 Degradation and Daughter Products 170 633 Biodegradation Half-Life 173 634 DNAPL Migration 185 64 Groundwater Remediation Strategies 188 641 Preliminary Considerations 188 642 Soil Excavation, Treatment and Disposal 195 643 Soil Vapor Extraction 197 644 Enhanced Methods of Soil Vapor Extraction 201 645 In Situ Air Sparging 202 646 Enhanced Biodegradation 210 647 In-well Aeration and Recirculation 215 648 Reactive and Permeable Walls 216 65 Costs 217 651 Soil Excavation, Treatment and Disposal 217 652 Soil Vapor Extraction 220 653 Air Sparging Comparisons to other Technologies 227 7 Mineral Ions and Natural Groundwater Contaminants 233 71 Overview 233 72 Secondary Drinking Water Standards 236 73 Irrigation Water Quality Standards 238 731 Salts 238 732 Water Analysis Terminology 238 733 Types of Salt Problems 239 734 Salinity Hazard 241 735 Sodium Hazard 242 736 Trace Elements and Limits 242 74 Water Treatment Membrane Technologies 247 741 Overview 247 742 Reverse Osmosis (RO) 248 743 Nanofiltration 255 744 Microfiltration 258 745 Ultrafiltration 260 746 Treatment Costs 262 747 Secondary Wastes 265 748 Selection Criteria 265 75 Ion Exchange 266 751 Technology Description 266 752 Chelating Agents 271 753 Batch and Column Exchange Systems 272 754 Process Equipment 272 755 Cost Data 275 76 Crystallization 279 761 Technology Description 279 762 Forced-Circulation Crysallizers 286 763 Draft-tube Crystallizers and Draft-tube-baffle Crystallizers 288 764 Surface-Cooled Crystallizers 289 765 Oslo Crystallizers 291 766 Fluid-Bed Type Crystallizers 292 8 Heavy Metals and Mixed Media Remediation Technologies for Contaminated Soils and Groundwater 299 81 Nature of the Problem 299 82 Toxic Metal Chemical Forms, Speciation 300 and Properties 83 Remedial Technology Strategies 306 831 Isolation 306 832 Capping 306 833 Subsurface Barriers 313 834 Immobilization 315 835 Solidification/Stabilization 317 836 Vitrification 321 837 Toxicity and Mobility Reduction 323 838 Wet Oxidation Process 331 839 Advanced Oxidation Technologies 333 8310 Permeable Treatment Walls 343 8311 Biological Treatment 344 8312 Physical Separation 346 8313 Extraction 349 8314 Soil Washing 349 8315 Soil Screening 350 8316 Chemical Treatment 350 8317 Physical Treatment 351 8318 Pyrometallurgical Extraction 352 8319 In Situ Soil Flushing 352 8320 Electrokinetic Treatment 352 84 Cost Data 353 841 General Cost Information 353 842 Site Capping 356 843 In situ Solidification/Stabilization 358 844 Ex Situ Solidification/Stabilization 361 845 Soil Washing 365 846 Slurry Walls 367