ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
CONTENTS THE BASIS OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY DEVELOPMENT OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY MASS ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 1 6 1 CLIMATE 1 6 2 STRESS 1 6 3 NATURAL HAZARDS 1 6 4 DYNAMIC PROCESSES 1 6 5 TIME ANALYSIS ESSENTIAL DEFINITIONS TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ENGINEERING GEOLOGY 1 10 FURTHER READING PART I INVESTIGATING THE GROUND GEOLOGICAL MATERIALS IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF GEOLOGICAL MATERIALS 2 1 1 SEDIMENTS 2 1 2 INTACT ROCK MATERIALS 2 1 3 FLUIDS AND GASSES DESCRIPTION OF MATERIALS PROPERTIES AND THEIR MEASUREMENT 2 3 1 TYPES OF TEST 2 3 2 LIMITATIONS OF TESTING 2 3 3 SIZE AND SHAPE OF SAMPLE 2 3 4 RATE OF LOADING, TESTING MACHINE AND PLATENS 2 3 5 STANDARDS DENSITY AND UNIT WEIGHT POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY CONTENTS 2 5 1 POROSITY 2 5 2 PERMEABILITY STRENGTH 2 6 1 WATER CONTENT AND DRAINAGE 2 6 2 STRENGTH TESTS DEFORMATION 2 7 1 TYPES OF ROCK DEFORMATION 2 7 2 CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS ABRASIVENESS ENVIRONMENTAL REACTIVITY 2 10 INDEX TESTS 2 10 1 SOILS 2 10 2 ROCKS 2 11 RANGE OF VALUES FOR MATERIAL PROPERTIES 2 11 1 SOILS 2 11 2 ROCKS 2 12 FURTHER READING GEOLOGICAL MASSES MASS FABRIC 3 1 1 DISCONTINUITIES 3 1 2 SHEAR STRENGTH 3 1 3 PERSISTENCE (CONTINUITY) 3 1 4 ORIENTATION 3 1 5 SPACING WEATHERING 3 2 1 INFLUENCE OF WEATHERING ON ROCK MASS PROPERTIES 3 2 2 SUSCEPTIBILITY TO WEATHERING 3 2 3 STANDARD WEATHERING DESCRIPTION SYSTEMS 3 2 4 WEATHERING DESCRIPTION AND ZONATION GROUND MASS DESCRIPTION 3 3 1 GENERAL MASS DESCRIPTION 3 3 2 CORE LOGGING 3 3 3 A THEORETICAL EXAMPLE FURTHER READING MAPS 4 1 1 PUBLISHED GEOLOGICAL MAPS 4 1 2 PUBLISHED ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL MAPS GEOLOGICAL MAP MAKING 4 2 1 LINKING THE DATA UNDERSTANDING GEOLOGICAL MAPS 4 3 1 INTERPRETATION OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS – EXAMPLE MAPPING AT A SMALL SCALE CONTENTS 4 4 1 STARTING 4 4 2 COVERING THE GROUND 4 4 3 HAZARDS MAPPING AT A LARGE SCALE 4 5 1 FOUNDATION AREAS AND EXCAVATIONS 4 5 2 ROCK SLOPES AND MAJOR OUTCROPS 4 5 3 TUNNELS 4 5 4 MINES 4 5 5 NATURAL CAVITIES ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL MAPS 4 6 1 THE PAST 4 6 2 THE PRESENT 4 6 3 SYMBOLOGY 4 6 4 CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS QUALITY OF PUBLISHED INFORMATION AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITY AN AID TO ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL MAPPING 4 8 1 FACTORS IN THE PRI 4 8 2 CALCULATING THE PROBLEM RECOGNITION INDEX ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION 4 9 1 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS 4 9 2 DISCUSSION 4 10 FURTHER READING RECOVERY OF SAMPLES PURPOSE AND PRINCIPLES 5 1 1 DRILLING AND SAMPLING DRILLING AND SAMPLING IN ROCK 5 2 1 ROTARY CORE DRILLING 5 2 2 DRILLS DRILLING TOOLS 5 3 1 CORE BITS 5 3 2 CORE BARRELS 5 3 3 FLUSHING MEDIA 5 3 4 CORE AND CORE BARREL SIZES 5 3 5 EXTRACTION AND STORAGE OF CORES DRILLING PROCESS 5 4 1 CORE RECOVERY 5 4 2 EFFICIENCY IN DRILLING 5 4 3 INTEGRAL CORE SAMPLING 5 4 4 ORIENTED CORES DRILLING AND SAMPLING IN SOIL 5 5 1 PERCUSSION (“SHELL AND AUGER”) BORING AND DRIVEN TUBE SAMPLES 5 5 2 CONTINUOUS SOIL SAMPLING 5 5 3 POWER AUGERS 5 5 4 HAND AUGERS 5 5 5 SPECIAL SAMPLERS DAILY DRILLING RECORDS PROBE DRILLING 5 7 1 TRIAL EXCAVATIONS BORING AND SAMPLING OVER WATER 5 8 1 PUSHED AND DRIVEN WIRE LINE SAMPLERS 5 8 2 SUBMERGED ROTARY RIGS 5 8 3 VIBRO-CORERS 5 8 4 ELECTRO-CORERS 5 8 5 SUBMERGED REMOTE CONTROL ROTARY CORERS 5 8 6 GRAVITY SAMPLERS AND STATIONARY PISTON CORERS 5 8 7 SAMPLE QUANTITY AND QUALITY CONTAMINATED LAND 5 10 FURTHER READING FIELD TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS INTRODUCTION TESTS IN BOREHOLES 6 2 1 RESISTANCE TO PENETRATION 6 2 2 STRENGTH AND DEFORMATION TESTS 6 2 3 PERMEABILITY TESTS 6 2 4 MEASUREMENTS OF IN SITU STRESS TESTS IN LARGE DIAMETER BOREHOLES, SHAFTS AND TUNNELS 6 3 1 PLATE BEARING TEST 6 3 2 IN SITU SHEAR TESTS 6 3 3 OTHER TESTS MEASUREMENTS IN BOREHOLES AND EXCAVATIONS 6 4 1 STANDPIPES AND PIEZOMETERS 6 4 2 EXTENSOMETERS 6 4 3 INCLINOMETERS 6 4 4 SETTLEMENT GAUGES 6 4 5 PRESSURE CELLS ENGINEERING GEOPHYSICS 6 5 1 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS 6 5 2 CHOICE OF METHODS 6 5 3 CONTAMINATED LAND SEISMIC METHODS 6 6 1 REFLECTION SEISMIC TECHNIQUES 6 6 2 CONTINUOUS SEISMIC PROFILING 6 6 3 SEISMIC REFRACTION METHODS 6 6 4 DOWN-HOLE AND CROSS-HOLE SHOOTING 6 6 5 PARTICULAR APPLICATIONS OF THE SEISMIC METHOD ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHODS MAGNETIC METHODS 6 8 1 ELECTROMAGNETIC TECHNIQUES GRAVITY METHODS 6 10 FURTHER READING ORGANISATION, DESIGN AND REPORTING OF SITE INVESTIGATIONS STAGES OF INVESTIGATION 7 1 1 PROJECT CONCEPTION STAGE 7 1 2 PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION STAGE 7 1 3 MAIN INVESTIGATION STAGE 7 1 4 CONSTRUCTION INVESTIGATION STAGE 7 1 5 POST-CONSTRUCTION INVESTIGATION STAGE DESIGN OF SITE INVESTIGATIONS 7 2 1 BUILDING THE GEOTECHNICAL MODEL 7 2 2 GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN OF AN SI PROGRESSIVE EVALUATION OF SITE INVESTIGATION DATA INVESTIGATION PROGRESS AND ENGINEERING DESIGN TENDER VISITS SUPERVISION OF INVESTIGATING WORKS THE ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL SITUATION INVESTIGATION REPORTS THE FORM OF THE REPORT 7 9 1 OTHER ASPECTS OF REPORT PREPARATION 7 9 2 BOREHOLE RECORDS 7 10 FURTHER READING PART II GROUND BEHAVIOUR GROUND RESPONSE TO ENGINEERING AND NATURAL PROCESSES ENGINEERING PROCESSES NATURAL PROCESSES RECOGNISING PROBLEMS GROUNDWATER 8 4 1 COMMON PROBLEMS WITH GROUNDWATER IN ENGINEERING 8 4 2 THEORY OF GROUNDWATER LOWERING 8 4 3 EXCLUDING WATER 8 4 4 INFLOW INTO TUNNELS 8 4 5 WATER OUTFLOW 8 4 6 LINKS TO ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION CONCLUSION WITHDRAWAL OF SUPPORT BY SURFACE EXCAVATIONS SLOPE MOVEMENTS SIMPLE SLOPE FAILURE THE STABILITY OF SLOPES IN SOIL 9 3 1 DRY SLOPES IN GRANULAR SOILS 9 3 2 SEEPAGE PARALLEL TO SLOPE 9 3 3 ROTATIONAL FAILURE CONTENTS 9 3 4 THE STABILITY OF TIPS AND SPOIL HEAPS SLOPES IN ROCK 9 4 1 THE STRENGTH OF DISCONTINUITIES 9 4 2 MODES OF FAILURE 9 4 3 2D THEORY VERSUS 3D REALITY ENGINEERING EXCAVATIONS 9 5 1 SURFACE EXCAVATIONS IN ROCK 9 5 2 EXCAVATION UNDERWATER INVESTIGATIONS OF SLOPE STABILITY 9 6 1 INVESTIGATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF EXCAVATED SLOPES 9 6 2 INVESTIGATIONS OF EXISTING SLOPES DESIGN OF SLOPES 9 7 1 BENCHING ON SLOPES 9 7 2 DRAINAGE 9 7 3 THE EFFECT OF EXCAVATION TECHNIQUE ON SLOPE STABILITY EXISTING LANDSLIDES 9 8 1 RECOGNITION AND IDENTIFICATION 9 8 2 RATES OF MOVEMENT 9 8 3 EXTENT OF LANDSLIDES REMEDIAL WORKS FOR SLOPE INSTABILITY 9 9 1 METHODS OF STABILISATION 9 9 2 REMEDIAL WORKS FOR ROCK FALLS 9 10 FURTHER READING WITHDRAWL OF SUPPORT BY UNDERGROUND EXCAVATIONS 10 1 INTRODUCTION 10 2 STRESS 10 2 1 IN SITU STRESS FIELD 10 2 2 MAN INDUCED STRESSES 10 2 3 STRESS MEASUREMENTS 10 3 STRESS AROUND AN UNDERGROUND EXCAVATION 10 3 1 A CIRCULAR OPENING IN A LINEAR ELASTIC, HOMOGENEOUS AND ISOTROPIC MEDIUM 10 3 2 A CIRCULAR OPENING IN AN ELASTO-PLASTIC OR BRITTLE, HOMOGENEOUS AND ISOTROPIC MEDIUM 10 4 STRESS RELATED ISSUES 10 4 1 EXCAVATIONS IN A DISCONTINUOUS MEDIUM 10 4 2 SWELLING MATERIALS 10 4 3 DYNAMIC STRESSES – EARTHQUAKES 10 4 4 FAILURE MODES AND NEED FOR SUPPORT 10 4 5 STRESSES AROUND PORTALS 10 4 6 STAND-UP TIME AND TIME EFFECTS 10 5 EXCAVATION ISSUES 10 5 1 WATER AND UNDERGROUND EXCAVATIONS 10 5 2 EXCAVATION CONTENTS 10 6 MACHINE METHODS OF EXCAVATION 10 6 1 TUNNEL BORING MACHINES 10 7 BLASTING 10 7 1 SMOOTH WALL BLASTING AND PRE-SPLITTING 10 7 2 CONVENTIONAL LARGE-HOLE BLASTING 10 7 3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BLASTING 10 8 GROUND IMPROVEMENT AND SUPPORT 10 8 1 GROUND IMPROVEMENT 10 8 2 SUPPORT 10 8 3 NEW AUSTRIAN TUNNELLING METHOD (NATM) 10 9 SITE INVESTIGATION FOR UNDERGROUND EXCAVATIONS 10 9 1 INITIAL ESTIMATES 10 9 2 ON-GOING INVESTIGATIONS SITE INVESTIGATION FOR SURFACE EFFECTS OF TUNNELLING 10 10 SUBSIDENCE 10 10 1 SUBSIDENCE DUE TO A SINGLE TUNNEL 10 10 2 SUBSIDENCE DUE TO MINING 10 11 PRESENT MINING 10 11 1 MINING SUB-HORIZONTAL DEPOSITS 10 11 2 MINING SUB-VERTICAL DEPOSITS 10 12 PAST MINING 10 12 1 BELL PITS 10 12 2 ROOM AND PILLAR WORKINGS 10 13 MINE STABILITY 10 13 1 PILLAR FAILURE 10 13 2 MINE STABILITY ANALYSIS 10 13 3 AFTER EFFECTS OF MINING 10 14 SITE INVESTIGATIONS FOR SUBSIDENCE AREAS 10 14 1 DETECTION OF OLD MINE WORKINGS 10 14 2 INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES 10 15 FURTHER READING STATIC LOADING OF THE GROUND 11 1 INTRODUCTION TYPES OF FOUNDATION DISTRIBUTION OF STRESS UNDER A FOUNDATION 11 2 BEARING CAPACITY IN SOILS ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY SAFE BEARING CAPACITY AND ALLOWABLE PRESSURES BEARING CAPACITIES ON BOULDER BEARING SOILS 11 3 SETTLEMENT ON SOILS IMMEDIATE (SHORT-TERM) SETTLEMENT CONSOLIDATION (LONG-TERM) SETTLEMENT 11 4 BEARING CAPACITY ON ROCK MASSES 11 5 FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT ON ROCK CONTENTS 11 6 PRELIMINARY ESTIMATES BY THE ENGINEERING GEOLOGIST 11 6 1 ESTIMATES OF BEARING CAPACITY 11 6 2 INFLUENCE OF GEOLOGICAL FACTORS ON FOUNDATION PERFORMANCE 11 7 FOUNDATIONS ON SLOPES 11 8 CONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS 11 8 1 FOUNDATION EXCAVATIONS 11 8 2 STEPPED FOUNDATIONS 11 8 3 FOUNDATIONS PILED TO ROCK 11 9 FIELD ASSESSMENT OF EXPOSED FOUNDATIONS 11 10 FURTHER READING DYNAMIC LOADING OF THE GROUND 12 1 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKES 12 2 SOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTHQUAKES 12 2 1 MAGNITUDE 12 2 2 INTENSITY 12 2 3 AMPLIFICATION 12 3 LIQUEFACTION 12 4 OTHER EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES 12 5 ASSESSING SEISMIC RISK AND SEISMIC HAZARD 12 6 GROUND ENGINEERING DESIGN AGAINST EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS 12 7 AFTER THE EARTHQUAKE 12 8 FURTHER READING GROUND REACTION TO CHANGES OF FLUID AND GAS PRESSURES 13 1 SUBSIDENCE DUE TO THE PUMPING OUT OF FLUID 13 1 1 THE PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS 13 1 2 THE ROLE OF THE ENGINEERING GEOLOGIST 13 2 WATER 13 2 1 SUBSIDENCE IN UNCONFINED AQUIFERS 13 2 2 SUBSIDENCE IN CONFINED AQUIFERS 13 3 SUBSIDENCE IN ROCK AQUIFERS AND RESERVOIRS 13 3 1 EXTRACTION OF WATER 13 3 2 EXTRACTION OF OIL AND GAS 13 3 3 EXTRACTION OF GAS 13 4 REDUCTION AND MONITORING OF SUBSIDENCE FROM FLUID WITHDRAWAL 13 4 1 MEASURING CONSOLIDATION AND COMPACTION 13 5 FURTHER READING EPILOGUE REFERENCES