THE CONVERSION OF COAL INTO OILS
SYNOPSIS 1 SUMMARY 7 1 LIQUID FUELS FOR TRANSPORTATION 51 Demand for Liquid Transportation Fuels, 52 Alternative Transportation Fuels, 55 Purpose of This Study, 56 Context of Report, 58 Structure of This Report, 60 References, 61 2 BIOMASS RESOURCES FOR LIQUID TRANSPORTATION FUELS 63 Current Biomass Production for Biofuels, 64 Biomass Resources, 70 Research and Development, 89 Costs of Supplying Biofuel Feedstocks, 92 Environmental Effects, 100 Findings and Recommendations, 103 References, 106 3 BIOCHEMICAL CONVERSION OF BIOMASS 117 Technology Alternatives, 117 Biochemical Conversion of Cellulosic Biomass, 121 Cost and Performance, 132 Technology Forecast, 145 Findings and Recommendations, 153 References, 157 4 THERMOCHEMICAL CONVERSION OF COAL AND BIOMASS 163 Status and Challenges of Technology Alternatives, 164 Indirect-Liquefaction Technologies, 167 Direct-Liquefaction Technologies, 209 Findings and Recommendations, 215 References, 221 5 DISTRIBUTION 225 Ethanol Transportation, 227 The Market for Biofuels, 235 Findings and Recommendations, 239 References, 240 6 COMPARISON OF OPTIONS AND MARKET PENETRATION 243 Comparison of Costs, Greenhouse Gas Emissions, and Potential Fuel Supply, 244 Market Penetration, 259 Findings and Recommendations, 265 Reference, 267 7 OVERALL FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 269 8 KEY CHALLENGES TO COMMERCIAL DEPLOYMENT 277 Challenge 1, 277 Challenge 2, 278 Challenge 3, 279 Challenge 4, 279 Challenge 5, 280 9 OTHER ALTERNATIVE FUEL OPTIONS 281 Compressed Natural Gas, 282 Alternative Diesel, 284 Methanol, 285 Dimethyl Ether, 285 Hydrogen, 286 References, 291