HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY
1 Introduction: Colors, Natural and Synthetic, in the Ancient World 1 11 Introduction 1 12 Working Definition and Nature of Color 2 13 Natural and Synthetic Colors in the Ancient World 2 131 Blue Coloring Materials 3 132 Red Coloring Materials 7 133 Yellow Coloring Materials 9 References 9 2 Discovery of the Physics of Color 11 21 Theories on the Nature of Light 11 22 Newton’s Famous Prismatic Dispersion Experiments 12 23 Consequences of Newton’s Experiment 14 24 The Visible Spectrum Examined 15 25 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 16 26 How We See Color 18 261 The Light Source 18 262 Interaction of Light with Matter 20 263 The Object Observed 21 264 The Eye–Brain Detector-Interpreter 23 265 Primary Colors 25 References 27 3 The Chemical Causes of Color 29 31 Development of Atomic Theory 29 32 The Chemical Bond 31 33 Electronic Transitions: The Hydrogen Spectrum 33 34 Color in Organic Compounds 35 341 The MO Model 35 342 The VB Model 36 343 The Free Electron Model 37 344 Modification of Witt’s Terms and Classification of Colored Organic Compounds 37 35 Colored Inorganic Compounds 38 351 Electronic Transitions in Coordination Compounds 38 352 Color in Chelate Complexes 40 353 Charge Transfer Transitions 41 354 Semiconducting Materials 42 References 44 4 Colorant Usage from Antiquity to the Perkin Era 47 41 Body Paint, Face Paint, Hair Coloring, Cosmetics 47 42 Ceramics, Glasses, Glazes and Stained Glass 48 421 The Nature of Glasses 49 422 The Desired Properties of Glazes: Colorants in Glazes 49 423 Stained and Painted Glass 51 43 Artists’ Colorants 53 431 Literature Sources for Ancient, Medieval, and Renaissance Technical Practice 54 432 Pigment Use in Manuscript Painting 57 433 A Digression on Two Blue Pigments: Iron Blue and Ultramarine 58 434 Pigment Use in Mosaic Painting 60 435 Pigment Use in Fresco Painting 61 436 Pigment Use in Oil Painting 63 44 Dyes 64 441 Tyrian Purple 65 442 Natural Colorants from Around the World 67 443 Emergence of the Dye Industry 69 References 75 5 Beyond Perkin 79 51 Early Attempts at Dye Synthesis in the Years Following Mauve 79 52 Hofmann’s Early Theoretical Work 80 53 Evolution: From Craft to Science 81 54 Structural Developments 82 55 Adolf von Baeyer and the Synthesis of Indigo 83 56 From Madder to Alizarin: A Convoluted Journey 85 57 Synthesis of Alizarin 87 58 Conclusion: Legacy of the Dye Industry 88 References 91 6 Major Analytical Techniques Based on Color: Volumetric Analysis; Chromatography; Spectroscopy; Color Measurement 93 61 Volumetric Analysis 93 62 Chlorophyll and Chromatography 95 63 Spectroscopy 99 64 Color Measurement 105 References 108 7 Color on the Biological and Biochemical Front 111 71 Reduction and Oxidation of the Vat Dyes 111 72 Research on the Color of Blood 112 73 The Towering Figure of the Multifaceted Paul Ehrlich 113 731 Ehrlich’s Early Colorful Work with Histological Staining 113 732 Ehrlich’s Major Ideas 114 733 The Birth of Chemotherapy 114 734 The Salvarsan Story 116 735 A Summary of Paul Ehrlich’s Accomplishments from the Standpoint of Dyes and Colors 117 736 Paul Ehrlich: The Person 118 74 Some Other Biochemical Spin-Offs from the German Dye Industry and Paul Ehrlich’s Legacy 119 741 Gerhard Johannes Domagk (1895–1964) 119 742 Paul Hermann Müller (1899–1965) 120 743 Monoclonal Antibodies 120 75 More Colorful Natural Products Chemistry 121 751 Chlorophyll 121 752 The Carotenoids and Xanthophylls 123 References 126 8 Finale: Color in Foods, Photochemistry, Photoluminescence, Pharmaceuticals, Fireworks, Fun, and the Future 129 81 Color in Foods 129 82 Photochemistry and Photoluminescence 131 821 Film and Photography 132 822 Photoluminescence: Fluorescence and Phosphorescence 134 823 Photoluminescence: Lasers 136 824 Color in Fireworks: Pyrotechnics 137 83 Color in Pharmaceuticals: Pills and Tablets 138 84 Color for Fun and Enjoyment 138 85 Color in the Future 141 References 142