THE STUDY OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
CONTENTS PART I GENERAL INTRODUCTION REFERENCE CARBON DIOXIDE IN GENERAL CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON DIOXIDE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON DIOXIDE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES INDUSTRIAL USE OF CARBON DIOXIDE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON DIOXIDE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES THERMALLY RELATED PROPERTIES ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OPTICAL PROPERTIES THE CARBON CYCLE SOURCES OF CARBON ON EARTH CARBON POOLS AND GLOBAL CYCLING CARBON BUDGET SUBSURFACE CO2 MONITORING BIOMASS BURNING LAND-USE CHANGE AND DEFORESTATION FOSSIL FUEL BURNING REFERENCES PART II PRINCIPLES OF CARBON DIOXIDE SENSORS AND MEASURING METHODS SPECTROSCOPY CHARACTERISTIC WAVE NUMBERS AND WAVELENGTHS OF GASES ABSORPTION OF RADIATION IN MOLECULES MOLECULAR ABSORPTION IN THE INFRARED RANGE LINE SHAPES FOR MOLECULAR ABSORPTION IN THE INFRARED RANGE LINE BROADENING HIGH-RESOLUTION TRANSMISSION MOLECULAR ABSORPTION DATABASE LORENTZIAN LINE SHAPE GAUSSIAN LINE SHAPE APPLICABILITY OF LINE SHAPES SPECTRAL RESOLUTION OF INDIVIDUAL RO-VIBRATIONAL ABSORPTION LINES CO2 ABSORPTION IN THE INFRARED RANGE LASER SPECTROSCOPY BASIC MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS PROPERTIES OF LASERS SUITABLE FOR TLAS LASER ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY MEASUREMENT SCHEMES GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLE CLASSI?CATION OF CHROMATOGRAPHIC METHODS GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY INSTRUMENTAL COMPONENTS AUTOSAMPLER SAMPLE INJECTION PORT COLUMN CARRIER GAS STATIONARY PHASE DETECTORS DATA ANALYSIS ANALYTICAL DETERMINATION OF CO2 IN LIQUIDS ELECTROCHEMICAL CO2 SENSORS WITH LIQUID OR PASTY ELECTROLYTE SEVERINGHAUS-TYPE MEMBRANE-COVERED CARBON DIOXIDE SENSORS THE SEVERINGHAUS PRINCIPLE SENSOR ELECTROLYTE MEMBRANE MATERIALS TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE RESPONSE BEHAVIOUR CALIBRATION OF ELECTROCHEMICAL CO2 SENSORS COULOMETRIC AND AMPEROMETRIC CO2 SENSORS OPERATION PRINCIPLE IRO2 ELECTRODE AMPEROMETRIC CO2 SENSORS CONDUCTOMETRIC CO2 SENSORS QUINHYDRONE CO2 ELECTRODE POTENTIOMETRIC CO2 SENSORS WITH SOLID ELECTROLYTE INDIRECT MEASUREMENT OF CO2 IN HOT WATER GAS DIRECT CO2 MEASUREMENT WITH SOLID ELECTROLYTE CELLS FUNCTIONAL PRINCIPLES OF SOLID ELECTROLYTE CO2 CELLS GENERAL SETUP PELLET SENSORS THICK-FILM SENSORS SOLID-STATE SENSORS BASED ON CHANGES IN CAPACITY AND RESISTIVITY OPTO-CHEMICAL CO2 SENSORS LIQUID REAGENT-BASED OPTO-CHEMICAL CO2 SENSORS CO2 DETECTOR TUBES FIBRE-OPTIC FLUORESCENCE CO2 SENSORS FIBRE-OPTIC SENSORS LIGHT PROPAGATION IN OPTIC FIBRES GENERAL SET-UP AND BASIC COMPONENTS OPTICAL FIBRES INTERACTION BETWEEN LIGHT AND EXTERNAL MEASURAND ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE-OPTIC SENSORS FIBRE-OPTIC FLUORESCENCE GAS SENSORS GENERAL FLUORESCENT SENSOR DYES FOR CO2 DETECTION FIBRE-OPTIC CO2 SENSORS COMMERCIAL FIBRE-OPTIC CO2 SENSOR SOLUTIONS NON-DISPERSIVE INFRARED SENSORS BASIC PRINCIPLE AND GENERAL SET-UP GENERAL SET-UP GAS SELECTIVITY NDIR COMPONENTS INFRARED DETECTORS PYROELECTRIC IR SENSORS THERMOPILES COMPARISON OF DETECTORS WAVELENGTH SELECTION BY IR FILTERS IR FILTERS FABRY–PÉROT FILTERS IR RADIATION SOURCES REQUIREMENTS IR RADIATION SOURCE SELECTION THERMAL EMITTERS GAS SENSORS FOR MEASURING CO2 IN GAS MIXTURES NDIR SENSORS COMMERCIAL NDIR SENSORS APPLICATION FOR VERY SMALL CONCENTRATIONS AND FOR LIQUID SAMPLES PRE-CONCENTRATORS FOR LOW GAS CONCENTRATIONS MEASUREMENT OF DISSOLVED CO2 IN LIQUIDS BY USING PERMEATION METHODS IR SPECTROMETERS TYPES OF IR SPECTROMETERS APPLICATIONS IR IMAGING FOR CO2 DETECTION PHOTOACOUSTIC E?ECT AND PHOTOACOUSTIC GAS DETECTION PHOTOACOUSTIC CELL AS GAS-SPECI?C RADIATION DETECTOR PHOTOACOUSTIC DETECTION IN THE SAMPLE CELL PHOTOACOUSTIC SIGNAL GENERATION PHOTOACOUSTIC GAS ANALYSIS WITH THERMAL SOURCES MINIATURIZED PA DETECTION SYSTEMS PHOTOACOUSTIC DETECTION IN THE GAS SAMPLE LASER-BASED PHOTOACOUSTIC TRACE GAS DETECTION GENERAL OVERVIEW RESONANT PHOTOACOUSTIC CELL DESIGN ACOUSTIC DETECTORS QUARTZ-ENHANCED PHOTOACOUSTIC SPECTROSCOPY CANTILEVER-ENHANCED LASER-PAS DETECTION LIMITS OF CO2 GAS ANALYSIS WITH LASER-BASED PAS ACOUSTIC CO2 SENSORS BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RESONANT SENSORS PIEZOELECTRIC RESONATORS CIRCUIT MODEL RESONANCE FREQUENCIES TYPES OF PIEZOELECTRIC RESONANT SENSORS QUARTZ CRYSTAL MICROBALANCE SENSORS QUARTZ AS RESONATOR MATERIAL THICKNESS SHEAR MODE SENSORS VIBRATION MODES SENSITIVITY COMMERCIAL QCM SENSORS CO2-SENSITIVE COATING OTHER APPLICATIONS OF CO2-SENSITIVE QCMS SURFACE ACOUSTIC WAVE SENSORS EXCITATION OF SURFACE ACOUSTIC WAVES OPERATION MODES OF SAW SENSORS SAW SENSOR MATERIALS SAW DEVICES CO2-SENSITIVE SAW SENSORS ULTRASONIC CO2 SENSORS VELOCITY OF SOUND IN GASES BASIC SET-UP ULTRASONIC SENSORS FOR CO2 DETECTION MISCELLANEOUS APPROACHES HYDROGEL-BASED CO2 SENSORS WITH PRESSURE TRANSDUCER MINIATURIZED AND ISFET-BASED CO2 SENSORS THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY CO2 DETECTORS MEMBRANE-BASED CO2 SENSORS WITH PRESSURE MEASUREMENT SURVEY AND COMPARISON OF METHODS PART III APPLICATIONS ENVIRONMENTAL CO2 MONITORING CO2 AND CLIMATE CHANGE THE CARBON DIOXIDE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM PRE-INDUSTRIAL CO2 LEVEL PRE-INDUSTRIAL CO2 LEVEL DERIVED FROM ICE CORE DATA CO2 INCREASE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 12 2 3 1 MAUNA LOA CO2 RECORD 12 2 3 2 LATITUDINAL VARIATION 12 2 3 3 TIMELY VARIATIONS ATMOSPHERIC CO2 RESIDENCE TIME ATMOSPHERIC CO2 CHEMISTRY OCEANIC AND WATER CO2 AND CARBONATE CONTENT CO2 WATER CHEMISTRY TOTAL DISSOLVED CARBON (DIC) CHANGING SEAWATER CARBONATE OCEANIC CO2 MEASUREMENTS CO2 MEASUREMENTS IN WATERS AND BOREHOLES CO2 SAFETY CONTROL LIMIT VALUES FOR CO2 CONCENTRATIONS AT WORKPLACES CO2 IN BUILDINGS AND WORKPLACES SICK-BUILDING SYNDROME DANGEROUS AREAS CO2 WARNING DEVICES CO2 DETECTOR AND DOSIMETER TUBES ELECTROCHEMICAL CO2 SENSORS NDIR CO2 SENSORS 13 3 3 1 PROPERTIES 13 3 3 2 CALIBRATION OF NDIR CO2 MEASURING DEVICES 13 3 3 3 PRESSURE DEPENDENCE 13 3 3 4 RESPONSE TIME SOLID ELECTROLYTE CO2 SENSORS GAS CHROMATOGRAPH WITH THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY DETECTOR CO2 MEASUREMENT IN BIOTECHNOLOGY AND INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES BEVERAGE AND FOOD INDUSTRY SENSOR PRINCIPLES 14 1 1 1 ELECTROCHEMICAL SENSORS 14 1 1 2 P/T (PRESSURE/TEMPERATURE) SENSORS 14 1 1 3 NIR-BASED IN-LINE CO2 MEASUREMENT 14 1 1 4 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY SENSORS 14 1 1 5 OTHER SENSOR PRINCIPLES APPLICATION EXAMPLES BIOREACTORS BIOGAS PLANTS CO2 MEASUREMENTS IN BIOLOGY AQUATIC ANIMALS FISH 15 1 1 1 IN?UENCE OF CO2 CONCENTRATION ON FISH 15 1 1 2 METHODS TO DETERMINE CO2 CONCENTRATIONS 15 1 1 3 BEHAVIOUR OF FISH IN REGIONS WITH INCREASED CO2 CONCENTRATION MUSSELS 15 1 2 1 RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT 15 1 2 2 RESPIRATORY EXCHANGE INSECTS CO2 MEASUREMENTS ON BUTTER?Y PUPAE CO2 MEASUREMENTS ON HONEYBEES PLANTS CO2 SENSING IN MEDICINE PHYSIOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF CO2 SENSING MEASURING PRINCIPLES ELECTROCHEMICAL PRINCIPLE: SEVERINGHAUS METHOD OPTICAL PRINCIPLES NEW AND UNCONVENTIONAL CO2 MEASURING PRINCIPLES CLINICAL APPLICATIONS BLOOD GAS ANALYSING DEVICES MONITORING DEVICES 16 4 2 1 TRANSCUTANEOUS PCO2 MEASUREMENT (TCPCO2) 16 4 2 2 BLOOD MONITORING DEVICES: DIRECT VENOUS OR ARTERIAL MONITORING OF BLOOD GASES COMPARISON OF METHODS AND CONCLUSIONS CO2 ANALYSIS IN HUMAN BREATH METHODS FOR CO2 DETECTION IN BREATH 16 6 1 1 QUALITATIVE AND SEMI-QUANTITATIVE DETECTION 16 6 1 2 QUANTITATIVE DETECTION BY NON-DISPERSIVE INFRARED ABSORPTION CO2 MEASUREMENTS ON BABY MATTRESSES