COLORS: WHAT THEY ARE AND WHAT TO EXPECT OF THEM
CONTENTS INTRODUCTION WHAT IS COLOR IMAGING SCIENCE? OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK 1 2 1 MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT AND COLOR 1 2 2 OPTICAL IMAGE FORMATION 1 2 3 IN THE EYE OF THE BEHOLDER 1 2 4 TOOLS FOR COLOR IMAGING 1 2 5 COLOR IMAGE ACQUISITION AND DISPLAY 1 2 6 IMAGE QUALITY AND IMAGE PROCESSING THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY AND GUIDE TO THE LITERATURES PROBLEMS LIGHT WHAT IS LIGHT? WAVE TRAINS OF ?NITE LENGTH COHERENCE 2 3 1 TEMPORAL COHERENCE 2 3 2 SPATIAL COHERENCE POLARIZATION 2 4 1 REPRESENTATIONS OF POLARIZATION 2 4 2 STOKES PARAMETERS 2 4 3 THE MUELLER MATRIX 2 4 4 THE INTERFERENCE OF POLARIZED LIGHT RADIOMETRY CONCEPTS AND DE?NITIONS SPECTRAL RADIOMETRY THE INTERNATIONAL LIGHTING VOCABULARY RADIANCE THEOREM INTEGRATING CAVITIES BLACKBODY RADIATION 3 6 1 PLANCK’S RADIATION LAW 3 6 2 BLACKBODY CHROMATICITY LOCI OF NARROW-BAND SYSTEMS PHOTOMETRY BRIGHTNESS MATCHING AND PHOTOMETRY THE SPECTRAL LUMINOUS EF?CIENCY FUNCTIONS PHOTOMETRIC QUANTITIES PHOTOMETRY IN IMAGING APPLICATIONS 4 4 1 EXPOSURE VALUE (EV) 4 4 2 GUIDE NUMBER 4 4 3 ADDITIVE SYSTEM OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EXPOSURE (APEX) LIGHT–MATTER INTERACTION LIGHT, ENERGY, AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER LIGHT AND MATTER 5 3 1 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 5 3 2 LIGHT WAVE PROPAGATION IN MEDIA 5 3 3 OPTICAL DISPERSION IN MATTER 5 3 4 QUANTUM MECHANICS AND OPTICAL DISPERSION LIGHT PROPAGATION ACROSS MATERIAL BOUNDARIES 5 4 1 RE?ECTION AND REFRACTION 5 4 2 SCATTERING 5 4 3 TRANSMISSION AND ABSORPTION 5 4 4 DIFFRACTION COLORIMETRY COLORIMETRY AND ITS EMPIRICAL FOUNDATIONS THE RECEPTOR-LEVEL THEORY OF COLOR MATCHING COLOR MATCHING EXPERIMENTS TRANSFORMATION BETWEEN TWO SETS OF PRIMARIES THE CIE 1931 STANDARD COLORIMETRIC OBSERVER (2?) THE CIE 1964 SUPPLEMENTARY STANDARD COLORIMETRIC OBSERVER (10?) CALCULATION OF TRISTIMULUS VALUES SOME MATHEMATICAL RELATIONS OF COLORIMETRIC QUANTITIES CAUTIONS ON THE USE OF COLORIMETRIC DATA COLOR DIFFERENCES AND UNIFORM COLOR SPACES 6 10 1 CIE 1976 UCS DIAGRAM 6 10 2 CIELUV COLOR SPACE 6 10 3 CIELAB COLOR SPACE 6 10 4 THE CIE 1994 COLOR-DIFFERENCE MODEL (CIE94) CIE TERMS THE CIE STANDARD LIGHT SOURCES AND ILLUMINANTS ILLUMINATING AND VIEWING CONDITIONS THE VECTOR SPACE FORMULATION OF COLOR CALCULATIONS APPLICATIONS OF COLORIMETRY 6 15 1 THE NTSC COLOR SIGNALS 6 15 2 COMPUTER GRAPHICS 6 15 3 DIGITAL COLOR IMAGE PROCESSING DEFAULT COLOR SPACE FOR ELECTRONIC IMAGING: SRGB LIGHT SOURCES NATURAL SOURCES 7 1 1 SUNLIGHT AND SKYLIGHT 7 1 2 MOONLIGHT 7 1 3 STARLIGHT ARTI?CIAL SOURCES: LAMPS 7 2 1 INCANDESCENT LAMPS 7 2 2 FLUORESCENT LAMPS 7 2 3 ELECTRONIC ?ASH LAMPS 7 2 4 MERCURY LAMPS, SODIUM LAMPS, AND METAL HALIDE LAMPS 7 2 5 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES (LEDS) COLOR-RENDERING INDEX SCENE PHYSICS GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF LIGHT RE?ECTION 8 2 1 THE BIDIRECTIONAL RE?ECTANCE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION (BRDF) 8 2 2 INTERFACE RE?ECTION 8 2 3 BODY RE?ECTION 8 2 4 EMPIRICAL SURFACE RE?ECTION MODELS RADIATIVE TRANSFER THEORY AND COLORANT FORMULATION 8 3 1 TRANSPARENT MEDIA 8 3 2 TURBID MEDIA CAUSES OF COLOR 8 4 1 SELECTIVE ABSORPTION 8 4 2 SCATTERING 8 4 3 INTERFERENCE 8 4 4 DISPERSION COMMON MATERIALS 8 5 1 WATER 8 5 2 METALS 8 5 3 MINERALS 8 5 4 CERAMICS AND CEMENTS 8 5 5 GLASS 8 5 6 POLYMERS 8 5 7 PLANTS 8 5 8 ANIMALS 8 5 9 HUMANS 8 5 10 PIGMENTS AND DYES 8 5 11 PAINTS 8 5 12 PAPER 8 5 13 PRINTING INKS STATISTICS OF NATURAL SCENES 8 6 1 COLORS TEND TO INTEGRATE TO GRAY 8 6 2 LOG LUMINANCE RANGE IS NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED 8 6 3 LOG RADIANCES TEND TO BE NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED 8 6 4 COLOR VARIATIONS SPAN A LOW-DIEMSIONAL SPACE 8 6 5 POWER SPECTRA TEND TO FALL OFF AS (1/F )N OPTICAL IMAGE FORMATION GEOMETRICAL AND PHYSICAL OPTICS THE BASIS OF GEOMETRICAL OPTICS PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY THE GEOMETRICAL THEORY OF OPTICAL IMAGING CONVENTIONS AND TERMINOLOGY IN OPTICAL IMAGING REFRACTION AT A SPHERICAL SURFACE 9 6 1 ON-AXIS IMAGING BY A SPHERICAL SURFACE 9 6 2 OFF-AXIS IMAGING BY A SPHERICAL SURFACE MATRIX METHOD FOR PARAXIAL RAY TRACING MATRIX DESCRIPTION OF GAUSSIAN OPTICAL IMAGING SYSTEMS GENERALIZED RAY TRACING PHYSICAL OPTICS 9 10 1 SCALAR AND VECTOR THEORIES OF DIFFRACTION 9 10 2 THE ?ELD IMPULSE RESPONSE OF AN IMAGING SYSTEM 9 10 3 THE OPTICAL TRANSFER FUNCTION (OTF) LENS ABERRATIONS AND IMAGE IRRADIANCE RADIOMETRY OF IMAGING 10 2 1 ON-AXIS IMAGE IRRADIANCES 10 2 2 OFF-AXIS IMAGE IRRADIANCES 10 2 3 GENERAL IMAGE IRRADIANCES LIGHT DISTRIBUTION DUE TO LENS ABERRATIONS 10 3 1 MONOCHROMATIC ABERRATIONS 10 3 2 DEPTH OF ?ELD 10 3 3 SINE CONDITION 10 3 4 CHROMATIC ABERRATION OPTICAL BLUR INTRODUCED BY THE CAMERA 10 4 1 THE REAL LENS 10 4 2 THE DIAPHRAGM 10 4 3 THE SHUTTER 10 4 4 EFFECTS OF OBJECT MOTION CAMERA ?ARE EYE OPTICS ANATOMY OF THE EYE REDUCED EYE AND SCHEMATIC EYES CONVERSION BETWEEN RETINAL DISTANCE AND VISUAL ANGLE RETINAL ILLUMINANCE DEPTH OF FOCUS AND DEPTH OF ?ELD FOCUS ERROR DUE TO ACCOMMODATION PUPIL SIZE STILES–CRAWFORD EFFECT VISUAL ACUITY MEASUREMENTS AND EMPIRICAL FORMULAS OF THE EYE MTF METHOD OF EYE MTF CALCULATION BY VAN MEETEREN FROM RETINA TO BRAIN THE HUMAN VISUAL SYSTEM THE CONCEPTS OF RECEPTIVE ?ELD AND CHANNEL PARALLEL PATHWAYS AND FUNCTIONAL SEGREGATION THE RETINA 12 4 1 PHOTORECEPTORS: RODS AND CONES 12 4 2 HORIZONTAL CELLS 12 4 3 BIPOLAR CELLS 12 4 4 AMACRINE CELLS 12 4 5 GANGLION CELLS LATERAL GENICULATE NUCLEUS (LGN) 12 5 1 COLOR-OPPONENT ENCODING VISUAL AREAS IN THE HUMAN BRAIN 12 6 1 PRIMARY VISUAL CORTEX 12 6 2 OTHER CORTICAL AREAS VISUAL PERCEPTION AND THE PARALLEL NEURAL PATHWAYS VISUAL PSYCHOPHYSICS PSYCHOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS 13 1 1 MEASUREMENT SCALES 13 1 2 PSYCHOMETRIC METHODS 13 1 3 DATA INTERPRETATION VISUAL THRESHOLDS 13 2 1 ABSOLUTE THRESHOLDS 13 2 2 CONTRAST THRESHOLDS 13 2 3 CONTRAST SENSITIVITY FUNCTIONS (CSFS) 13 2 4 PHOTOCHROMATIC INTERVAL 13 2 5 THRESHOLDS OF VISUAL BLUR VISUAL ADAPTATION 13 3 1 ACHROMATIC ADAPTATION 13 3 2 CHROMATIC ADAPTATION EYE MOVEMENTS AND VISUAL PERCEPTION PERCEPTION OF BRIGHTNESS AND LIGHTNESS 13 5 1 BRIGHTNESS PERCEPTION OF A UNIFORM VISUAL ?ELD (GANZFELD) 13 5 2 BRIGHTNESS PERCEPTION OF AN ISOLATED ?NITE UNIFORM AREA 13 5 3 BRIGHTNESS PERCEPTION OF TWO ADJACENT UNIFORM AREAS 13 5 4 BRIGHTNESS AND LIGHTNESS PERCEPTION DEPENDS ON THE PERCEIVED SPATIAL LAYOUT TRICHROMATIC AND OPPONENT-PROCESS THEORIES SOME VISUAL PHENOMENA 13 7 1 BRILLIANCE AS A SEPARATE PERCEPTUAL ATTRIBUTE 13 7 2 SIMULTANEOUS PERCEPTION OF ILLUMINATION AND OBJECTS 13 7 3 AFTERIMAGES 13 7 4 THE MACH BAND 13 7 5 THE CHEVREUL EFFECT 13 7 6 HERMANN–HERING GRIDS 13 7 7 THE CRAIK–O’BRIEN–CORNSWEET EFFECT 13 7 8 SIMULTANEOUS CONTRAST AND SUCCESSIVE CONTRAST 13 7 9 ASSIMILATION 13 7 10 SUBJECTIVE (ILLUSORY) CONTOURS 13 7 11 THE BEZOLD–BR¨UCKE EFFECT 13 7 12 THE HELMHOLTZ–KOHLRAUSCH EFFECT 13 7 13 THE ABNEY EFFECT 13 7 14 THE MCCOLLOUGH EFFECT 13 7 15 THE STILES–CRAWFORD EFFECT 13 7 16 SMALL ?ELD TRITANOPIA 13 7 17 THE OBLIQUE EFFECT COLOR ORDER SYSTEMS THE OSTWALD SYSTEM 14 2 1 THE OSTWALD COLOR ORDER SYSTEM 14 2 2 THE OSTWALD COLOR ATLAS THE MUNSELL SYSTEM 14 3 1 THE MUNSELL COLOR ORDER SYSTEM 14 3 2 THE MUNSELL COLOR ATLAS THE NCS 14 4 1 THE NCS COLOR ORDER SYSTEM 14 4 2 THE NCS COLOR ATLAS THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA (OSA) COLOR SYSTEM 14 5 1 THE OSA COLOR ORDER SYSTEM 14 5 2 THE OSA COLOR ATLAS COLOR HARMONY COLOR MEASUREMENT SPECTRAL MEASUREMENTS 15 1 1 SPECTRORADIOMETER 15 1 2 SPECTROPHOTOMETER 15 1 3 FACTORS TO CONSIDER GONIORE?ECTOMETERS MEASUREMENTS WITH COLORIMETRIC ?LTERS COMPUTATION OF TRISTIMULUS VALUES FROM SPECTRAL DATA DENSITY MEASUREMENTS 15 5 1 RE?ECTION DENSITY, D? AND DR 15 5 2 TRANSMISSION DENSITY ERROR ANALYSIS IN CALIBRATION MEASUREMENTS 15 6 1 ERROR ESTIMATION 15 6 2 PROPAGATION OF ERRORS EXPRESSION OF MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY DEVICE CALIBRATION COLORIMETRIC CALIBRATION 16 1 1 INPUT CALIBRATION 16 1 2 OUTPUT CALIBRATION 16 1 3 DEVICE MODEL VERSUS LOOKUP TABLES COMPUTATIONAL TOOLS FOR CALIBRATION 16 2 1 INTERPOLATION 16 2 2 TETRAHEDRAL INTERPOLATION 16 2 3 REGRESSION AND APPROXIMATION 16 2 4 CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION SPATIAL CALIBRATION 16 3 1 RESOLUTION CALIBRATION 16 3 2 LINE ?TTING ON A DIGITAL IMAGE TONE REPRODUCTION TRCS THE CONCEPT OF REFERENCE WHITE EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF TONE REPRODUCTION 17 4 1 BEST TONE REPRODUCTION DEPENDS ON SCENE CONTENTS 17 4 2 BEST TONE REPRODUCTION DEPENDS ON LUMINANCE LEVELS 17 4 3 BEST TONE REPRODUCTION DEPENDS ON VIEWING SURROUNDS 17 4 4 BEST TONE REPRODUCTION RENDERS GOOD BLACK TONE REPRODUCTION CRITERIA 17 5 1 REPRODUCING RELATIVE LUMINANCE 17 5 2 REPRODUCING RELATIVE BRIGHTNESS 17 5 3 REPRODUCING VISUAL CONTRAST 17 5 4 REPRODUCING MAXIMUM VISIBLE DETAILS 17 5 5 PREFERRED TONE REPRODUCTION DENSITY BALANCE IN TONE REPRODUCTION TONE REPRODUCTION PROCESSES FLARE CORRECTION GAMMA CORRECTION COLOR REPRODUCTION ADDITIVE AND SUBTRACTIVE COLOR REPRODUCTION OBJECTIVES OF COLOR REPRODUCTION 18 3 1 APPEARANCE COLOR REPRODUCTION 18 3 2 PREFERRED COLOR REPRODUCTION PSYCHOPHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS 18 4 1 THE EFFECT OF THE ADAPTATION STATE 18 4 2 THE EFFECT OF VIEWING SURROUNDS 18 4 3 THE EFFECT OF THE METHOD OF PRESENTATION COLOR BALANCE 18 5 1 PROBLEM FORMULATIONS 18 5 2 COLOR CUES 18 5 3 COLOR BALANCE ALGORITHMS COLOR APPEARANCE MODELS 18 6 1 COLOR APPEARANCE ATTRIBUTES 18 6 2 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE STIMULI AND THE VISUAL ?ELD 18 6 3 CIECAM97S 18 6 4 CIECAM02 AND REVISION OF CIECAM97S THEORETICAL COLOR GAMUT COLOR GAMUT MAPPING 18 8 1 SELECTION OF COLOR SPACE AND METRICS 18 8 2 COMPUTING THE DEVICE COLOR GAMUT 18 8 3 IMAGE-INDEPENDENT METHODS FOR COLOR GAMUT MAPPING USING MORE THAN THREE COLOR CHANNELS COLOR MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS COLOR IMAGE ACQUISITION GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SYSTEM DESIGN AND EVALUATION 19 1 1 CONSIDERATIONS FOR INPUT SPECTRAL RESPONSIVITIES 19 1 2 CALIBRATION, LINEARITY, SIGNAL SHAPING, AND QUANTIZATION 19 1 3 DYNAMIC RANGE AND SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO PHOTOGRAPHIC ?LMS 19 2 1 THE STRUCTURE OF A BLACK-AND-WHITE ?LM 19 2 2 THE LATENT IMAGE 19 2 3 FILM PROCESSING 19 2 4 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY 19 2 5 SUBTRACTIVE COLOR REPRODUCTION IN PHOTOGRAPHY 19 2 6 COLOR MASKING 19 2 7 SENSITOMETRY AND DENSITOMETRY COLOR IMAGES DIGITIZED FROM PHOTOGRAPHIC ?LMS 19 3 1 THE EFFECTIVE EXPOSURE MTF APPROACH 19 3 2 THE NONLINEAR MODEL APPROACH 19 3 3 INTERIMAGE EFFECTS FILM CALIBRATION SOLID-STATE SENSORS AND CCD CAMERAS 19 5 1 CCD DEVICES 19 5 2 CCD SENSOR ARCHITECTURES 19 5 3 CCD NOISE CHARACTERISTICS 19 5 4 CMOS SENSORS 19 5 5 EXPOSURE CONTROL FOR CCD AND CMOS SENSORS 19 5 6 CCD/CMOS CAMERA SYSTEMS 19 5 7 CCD/CMOS CAMERA CALIBRATIONS SCANNERS 19 6 1 SCANNER PERFORMANCE AND CALIBRATION A WORKED EXAMPLE OF 3 × 3 COLOR CORRECTION MATRIX COLOR IMAGE DISPLAY CRT MONITORS 20 1 1 CATHODE CURRENT AS A FUNCTION OF DRIVE VOLTAGE 20 1 2 CONVERSION OF ELECTRON MOTION ENERGY INTO LIGHT 20 1 3 CRT PHOSPHORS AND CATHODOLUMINESCENCE 20 1 4 CRT TONE TRANSFER CURVE 20 1 5 CRT COLORIMETRY LCDS 20 2 1 PROPERTIES OF LIQUID CRYSTALS 20 2 2 THE STRUCTURES OF LCDS AND HOW THEY WORK 20 2 3 LCD CALIBRATION PDPS ELECTROLUMINESCENT DISPLAYS 20 4 1 OLED AND PLED PRINTING TECHNOLOGIES 20 5 1 OFFSET LITHOGRAPHY 20 5 2 LETTERPRESS 20 5 3 GRAVURE 20 5 4 SCREEN PRINTING 20 5 5 SILVER HALIDE PHOTOGRAPHY 20 5 6 ELECTROPHOTOGRAPHY (XEROGRAPHY) 20 5 7 INKJET PRINTING 20 5 8 THERMAL PRINTING HALF-TONING 20 6 1 PHOTOMECHANICAL HALF-TONE SCREENS AND SCREEN ANGLES 20 6 2 SCREEN RULING, ADDRESSABILITY, RESOLUTION, AND GRAY LEVELS 20 6 3 DIGITAL HALF-TONING PRINTER CALIBRATION 20 7 1 CALIBRATION OF RGB PRINTERS 20 7 2 FOUR-COLOR PRINTING IMAGE QUALITY OBJECTIVE IMAGE QUALITY EVALUATION 21 1 1 DETECTOR EF?CIENCY 21 1 2 SPATIAL FREQUENCY ANALYSIS 21 1 3 IMAGE NOISE SUBJECTIVE IMAGE QUALITY EVALUATION 21 2 1 CONTRAST 21 2 2 SHARPNESS 21 2 3 GRAININESS AND NOISE PERCEPTION 21 2 4 TONAL REPRODUCTION 21 2 5 COLOR REPRODUCTION 21 2 6 COMBINED EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT IMAGE ATTRIBUTES 21 2 7 MULTI-DIMENSIONAL MODELING OF IMAGE QUALITY PHOTOGRAPHIC SPACE SAMPLING FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN IMAGE QUALITY EVALUATION 21 4 1 OBSERVER SCREENING 21 4 2 PLANNING OF EXPERIMENTS IMAGE ?DELITY AND DIFFERENCE EVALUATION 21 5 1 PERCEPTIBLE COLOR DIFFERENCES 21 5 2 VISIBLE DIFFERENCE PREDICTION BASIC CONCEPTS IN COLOR IMAGE PROCESSING GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS COLOR SPACES AND SIGNAL REPRESENTATIONS 22 2 1 SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS 22 2 2 NOISE STATISTICS 22 2 3 SYSTEM CONSTRAINTS COLOR IMAGE SEGMENTATION 22 3 1 COLOR SPACE FOR IMAGE SEGMENTATION 22 3 2 COMPARISON OF LINEAR AND LOGARITHMIC SPACES 22 3 3 METHOD FOR PARTITIONING THE COLOR SPACE 22 3 4 THE DISTANCE METRIC COLOR GRADIENT COLOR EDGE DETECTION 22 5 1 DERIVATIVE OF A COLOR IMAGE 22 5 2 STATISTICS OF NOISE IN A BOUNDARY DETECTOR 22 5 3 DETECTION OF A STEP BOUNDARY STATISTICS OF DIRECTIONAL DATA 22 6 1 REPRESENTATION AND DESCRIPTIVE MEASURES 22 6 2 MODEL DISTRIBUTIONS FOR DIRECTIONAL DATA DENOISING