SENIOR CHEMISTRY
1 NUMBERS, UNITS AND MEASUREMENT 1 1 VERY SMALL AND VERY BIG NUMBERS 1 2 LOGARITHMS 1 3 UNITS 1 4 ERRORS IN EXPERIMENTS 1 5 REPORTING MEASUREMENTS REVISION QUESTIONS 2 ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND REACTIONS 2 1 MATTER AND ENERGY 2 2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES 2 3 CHEMICAL FORMULAE 2 4 WRITING AND BALANCING EQUATIONS 3 INSIDE THE ATOM 3 1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 3 2 ISOTOPES 3 3 MASS SPECTROMETER 3 4 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOMS 3 5 EVIDENCE FOR THE EXISTENCE OF ENERGY LEVELS IN ATOMS 3 6 MORE ADVANCED IDEAS ABOUT ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE 4 BONDING BETWEEN ATOMS 4 1 WHY ATOMS COMBINE 4 2 IONIC BONDING 4 3 COVALENT BONDING 4 4 COORDINATE BONDING 4 5 IONIC AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS – TWO EXTREMES 4 6 RESONANCE STRUCTURES 5 MORE ABOUT BONDING 5 1 EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE 5 2 SHAPES OF MOLECULES 5 3 SHAPES OF MOLECULES WITH MULTIPLE BONDS 5 4 MOLECULES WITH AND WITHOUT DIPOLES 5 5 METALLIC BONDING 5 6 GIANT MOLECULES 5 7 FORCES BETWEEN COVALENT MOLECULES 6 REACTIONS OF IONS IN SOLUTION 6 1 DISSOLUTION OF SALTS IN WATER 6 2 IONIC EQUATIONS 6 3 PRODUCING IONS IN WATER BY CHEMICAL REACTION 6 4 ACIDS AND BASES 6 5 REACTIONS OF ACIDS 6 6 ACIDS PRODUCED WHEN GASES CO2, SO2 AND NO2 DISSOLVE IN WATER 6 7 REACTIONS OF THE HYDROXIDE ION 6 8 USE OF REACTIONS IN THE IDENTI?CATION OF IONS IN SOLUTION 7 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION 7 1 REDOX REACTIONS CONTENTS 17 2 OXIDATION NUMBERS 17 3 OXIDIZING AND REDUCING AGENTS 17 4 WRITING AND BALANCING REDOX EQUATIONS 17 5 REDOX COUPLES 17 6 ACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS 17 7 CORROSION OF IRON 17 8 REDOX REACTIONS IN NATURE 8 THE MOLE 18 1 MOLECULAR MASS 18 2 MOLES 18 3 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION BY MASS 18 4 WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION 18 5 CALCULATING AMOUNTS FROM EQUATIONS 18 6 CALCULATING GAS VOLUMES 18 7 PERCENTAGE YIELD 18 8 LIMITING REAGENTS 9 CALCULATING CONCENTRATIONS 19 1 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS 19 2 STANDARD SOLUTIONS 19 3 VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS 19 4 OTHER UNITS OF CONCENTRATION 19 5 PH SCALE 10 GASES, LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS 10 1 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE 10 2 CHANGES IN THE STATE OF MATTER 10 3 GAS LAWS 10 4 KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES 10 5 IDEAL GAS EQUATION 10 6 ADSORPTION OF GASES ON SOLIDS 10 7 VAPOUR PRESSURE 10 8 CRITICAL TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE 11 SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY 11 1 SOLUBILITY 11 2 DYNAMIC NATURE OF DISSOLUTION 11 3 SOLUBILITY OF SPARINGLY SOLUBLE IONIC COMPOUNDS 11 4 DISTRIBUTION OF A SOLUTE BETWEEN TWO SOLVENTS 11 5 SOLUBILITY OF GASES IN WATER 11 6 OSMOSIS 11 7 COLLOIDS 12 CHEMICAL FAMILIES 12 1 PERIODIC TABLE 12 2 GROUP 1 ELEMENTS – THE ALKALI METALS 12 3 GROUP 2 ELEMENTS – THE ALKALINE EARTH METALS 12 4 GROUP 14 ELEMENTS 12 5 GROUP 17 ELEMENTS – THE HALOGENS 12 6 GROUP 18 ELEMENTS – THE NOBLE GASES 12 7 ELEMENTS OF THE ?RST TRANSITION SERIES 12 8 VARIATION OF PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS WITHIN GROUPS AND PERIODS 13 ENERGY CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS 13 1 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 13 2 KEY POINTS ABOUT ENTHALPY CHANGES 13 3 DETERMINATION OF H IN THE LABORATORY 13 4 SPECIAL KINDS OF STANDARD ENTHALPY CHANGE 13 5 STANDARD ENTHALPY OF FORMATION 13 6 STANDARD ENTHALPY OF COMBUSTION 13 7 NUTRITION 13 8 LATTICE ENTHALPY 13 9 ENERGETICS OF BOND BREAKING AND BOND MAKING 14 SPEED OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS 14 1 REACTION RATE 14 2 FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATE 14 3 REACTION RATE EXPRESSIONS 14 4 EXAMPLES OF RATE EXPRESSIONS FOUND BY EXPERIMENT 14 5 CALCULATIONS USING RATE EXPRESSIONS 14 6 MORE ABOUT ?RST-ORDER REACTIONS 14 7 REACTION MECHANISMS 14 8 CATALYSIS 15 DYNAMIC CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA 15 1 INTRODUCTION 15 2 EQUILIBRIUM LAW AND EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT 15 3 MEANING OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS 15 4 EFFECTS OF CHANGING CONCENTRATION, PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE UPON EQUILIBRIA 15 5 PRODUCTION OF AMMONIA BY THE HABER–BOSCH PROCESS 15 6 HETEROGENEOUS EQUILIBRIA 16 ACID–BASE EQUILIBRIA 16 1 IONIC EQUILIBRIA IN WATER 16 2 ACIDS AND BASES IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION 16 3 HYDROLYSIS OF SALTS 16 4 BUFFER SOLUTIONS 16 5 ACID–BASE INDICATORS 16 6 VARIATION OF PH DURING AN ACID–BASE TITRATION 16 7 BUFFERING ACTION OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN WATER 17 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: HYDROCARBONS 17 1 ALKANES 17 2 ALKENES 17 3 ALKYNES 17 4 AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS 18 COMMON CLASSES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 18 1 HALOGENOALKANES 18 2 ALCOHOLS 18 3 CARBONYL COMPOUNDS 18 4 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS 18 5 AMINES 18 6 OPTICAL ISOMERISM 18 7 AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS 18 8 SUBSTITUTED BENZENE DERIVATIVES 19 SEPARATING MIXTURES 19 1 SEPARATING A SOLID FROM A LIQUID 19 2 SEPARATING TWO LIQUIDS 19 3 SEPARATING SOLIDS 19 4 STEAM DISTILLATION 19 5 ION EXCHANGE 19 6 SOLVENT EXTRACTION 19 7 CHROMATOGRAPHY 20 LIGHT AND SPECTROSCOPY 20 1 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM 20 2 ENERGY LEVELS OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES SPECTROMETERS ABSORBANCE AND TRANSMITTANCE OF A SAMPLE MORE ABOUT ULTRAVIOLET AND VISIBLE SPECTRA ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND COLOUR INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY BEER–LAMBERT LAW 20 10 PHOTOSYNTHESIS RADIOACTIVITY RADIONUCLIDES AND RADIOISOTOPES MORE ABOUT NUCLEAR RADIATION MATHEMATICS OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY USES OF RADIONUCLIDES 22 ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 22 1 INTRODUCTION 22 2 ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION 22 3 WATER POLLUTION 22 4 LAND POLLUTION 23 FORENSIC CHEMISTRY 23 1 PREREQUISITES 23 2 THE SCOPE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY 23 3 VARIATION OF THE CONCENTRATION OF A POISON WITH TIME 23 4 CALCULATIONS USING ?RST ORDER KINETICS 23 5 ZEROTH-ORDER KINETICS OF ETHANOL DECAY 23 6 DRINKING AND DRIVING 23 7 ANALYSIS OF DRUGS IN HAIR 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 1000 CONTENTS 1 1 VERY SMALL AND VERY BIG NUMBERS 1 5 REVISION QUESTIONS UNIT 1 NUMBERS, UNITS AND MEASUREMENT NOW LET US LOOK AT AN EXAMPLE OF STANDARD NOTATION THINK OF THE NUMBER 100 THIS IS THE SAME AS 1 100 IN STANDARD NOTATION WE WRITE THIS AS 1 102 SIMILARLY, 2300 BECOMES 2 3 1000 OR 2 3 6749008 BECOMES 6 749 008 0 0012450 BECOMES 1 2450 LOGARITHMS LOGARITHMS TO THE BASE WHAT IF YOU ARE PROVIDED WITH THE LOG OF X AND ASKED TO ?ND X? USING THE ABOVE EXAMPLE, HOW DO WE GET BACK TO 150 FROM 2 176? TO DO THIS WE WOULD NEED TO EVALU- ATE 102 176 (TO CARRY OUT THIS OPERATION ON A SCIENTI?C CALCULATOR WE USE THE 10X KEY, A COMMON SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS BEING SHIFT, 10X, NUMBER, AND = ) WE THEN WRITE 102 176 (II) (V) 602 200 000 000 000 000 000 (VI) QUICK TEST ON CALCULATOR USE USE YOUR CALCULATOR TO EVALU- ATE THE FOLLOWING: (I) 45 6 AND T EXERCISE 1B FIG 1 1 THERE ARE 1000 CM3 IN 1 DM3 10 CM 10 CM 10 CM 1 NUMBERS, UNITS AND MEASUREMENT YOU WILL ALSO MEET UNITS RAISED TO NEGATIVE POWERS, SUCH AS M3 (READ AS ‘PER METRE CUBED’) REMEMBER, NOW TRY EXERCISE 1C AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT PHYSICAL QUANTITIES IN CHEMISTRY IS THE AMOUNT OF SUB- STANCE, WHICH HAS THE UNIT OF MOLE (SYMBOL MOL) THE GREATER THE NUMBER OF PAR- TICLES (ATOMS, IONS OR MOLECULES) IN A PIECE OF MATERIAL, THE GREATER IS THE AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE CONCENTRATION IS ANOTHER PHYSICAL QUANTITY WHICH IS PARTICULARLY IMPOR- TANT TO CHEMISTS CONCENTRATION IS A MEASURE OF THE PACKING OF PARTICLES PER UNIT VOLUME, AND IS COMMONLY EXPRESSED IN THE UNITS OF MOL PER DM3, USUALLY WRITTEN AS MOL DM3 MOLES AND CONCENTRATION ARE DEALT WITH IN MORE DETAIL IN CHAPTERS THE SI UNIT OF ENERGY IS THE JOULE (J) 1 JOULE IS THE ENERGY USED UP IN PUSHING AGAINST A FORCE OF 1 NEWTON OVER A DISTANCE OF 1 METRE THIS MEANS THAT WE CAN WRITE 1J 1NM OF THE SAME SOLUTION? (III) THE WAVELENGTH OF ORANGE-YELLOW LIGHT IS ROUGHLY 600NM EXPRESS THE WAVELENGTH IN METRES EXERCISE 1C TABLE 1 2 SI PRE?XES VALUE PRE?X SYMBOL VALUE PRE?X SYMBOL 109, BILLION GIGA G MILLI- M 106, MILLION MEGA M MICRO- 103, THOUSAND KILO- K NANO- N DECI- D PICO- P CENTI- C THE UNITS OF DENSITY ARE THEREFORE KILOGRAMS PER CUBIC METRE (SEE EXAMPLE 1 1)