PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY IN MEDICINE
CONTENTS 1 SOME BASIC CONCEPT OF CHEMISTRY BASIC CONCEPTS MATTER AND ITS NATURE DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY CONCEPT OF ATOM, MOLECULE, ELEMENT AND COMPOUND REPRESENTATION OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES PRECISION AND ACCURACY SIGNIFICANT FIGURES THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (S I ) PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR MEASUREMENTS DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS MOLE – BASIC INTRODUCTION LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS GAY–LUSSAC’S LAW OF GASEOUS VOLUMES AVOGADRO’S LAW ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR MASSES EQUIVALENT MASS MOLE CONCEPT AND MOLAR MASSES MOLE CONCEPT AND VOLUME (L) OF IDEAL GAS AT NTP/STP PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE MOLE CONCEPT – STOICHIOMETRY BALANCING OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS STOICHIOMETRY AND STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS LIMITING REAGENT THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL YIELDS PRINCIPLE OF ATOM CONSERVATION (POAC) CONCENTRATION TERMS RELATION BETWEEN STOICHIOMETRIC QUANTITIES MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATION OF MOLE CONCEPT: GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS TYPES OF TITRATION CHAPTER IN TWO MINUTES SOLVED EXAMPLES SOLVED PREVIOUS YEARS’ NEET QUESTIONS ADDITIONAL OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS ANSWER KEY HINTS AND EXPLANATIONS 2 STRUCTURE OF ATOM DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON THOMSON EXPERIMENT – DETERMINATION OF CHARGE TO MASS RATIO MILLIKAN OIL DROP EXPERIMENT – CHARGE ON AN ELECTRON DISCOVERY OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS ANODE RAY EXPERIMENT SOME PREREQUISITES OF PHYSICS ATOMIC MODELS THOMSON MODEL OF ATOM RUTHERFORD’S NUCLEAR MODEL OF ATOM DRAWBACKS OF RUTHERFORD MODEL REPRESENTATION OF ATOM WITH ELECTRONS AND NEUTRONS ISOBARS AND ISOTOPES ISOTONES, ISODIAPHERS AND NUCLEAR ISOMERS NATURE OF WAVES NATURE OF ELECTRO MAGNETIC RADIATION WAVE NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY BLACKBODY RADIATION SPECTRA – CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS SPECTRUM ATOMIC SPECTRA 2 10 BOHR’S MODEL FOR HYDROGEN ATOM BOHR’S POSTULATES RADIUS OF BOHR ORBITS IN HYDROGEN VELOCITY OF ELECTRON ENERGY OF ELECTRON IN HYDROGEN ATOM IONIZATION ENERGY (ENTHALPY) LINE SPECTRA OF HYDROGEN LIMITATIONS OF BOHR’S MODEL 2 11 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 2 12 DUAL NATURE OF MATTER DE BROGLIE EQUATION 2 13 HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE SIGNIFICANCE OF UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE 2 14 NUMBER OF WAVES MADE BY THE ELECTRON 2 15 QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM HYDROGEN ATOM AND THE SCHRÖDINGER EQUATION IMPORTANT FEATURES OF QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL 2 16 ORBITALS AND QUANTUM NUMBERS SELECTION RULES GOVERNING ALLOWED COMBINATIONS OF QUANTUM NUMBERS SHAPES OF ATOMIC ORBITALS ELECTRON SPIN AND SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER ENERGIES OF ORBITALS EFFECTIVE NUCLEAR CHARGE 2 17 ELECTRONIC CON?GURATION OF ATOMS AUFBAU PRINCIPLE HUND’S RULE OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE WRITING ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION EXPLANATION FOR EXCEPTIONS IN ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION IN CU AND CR 3 STATES OF MATTER: GASES AND LIQUIDS CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES PRESSURE AS MEASURED PROPERTY OF GAS UNITS OF PRESSURE GAS LAWS BOYLE’S LAW CHARLES’ LAW GAY–LUSSAC’S LAW COMBINED GAS LAWS IDEAL GAS LAW DIMENSION AND NUMERICAL VALUES OF R DENSITY AND MOLAR MASS MEASUREMENT OF A GAS ILLUSTRATIONS BASED ON MERCURY COLUMN FAULTY BAROMETER DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES RELATIVE HUMIDITY PARTIAL PRESSURE IN TERMS OF MOLE FRACTION GRAHAM’S LAW OF EFFUSION AND DIFFUSION VARIATION OF PRESSURE INSIDE A CONTAINER DURING EFFUSION OF A GAS KINETIC THEORY OF GASES POSTULATES PREDICTION OF GAS LAWS DERIVATION OF KINETIC GAS EQUATION KINETIC ENERGY OF GAS AND AVERAGE, MOST PROBABLE AND ROOT MEAN SQUARE SPEEDS MAXWELL–BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS MOLECULAR COLLISIONS 3 10 REAL GASES AND THEIR DEVIATION FROM IDEAL GAS BEHAVIOR THE VAN DER WAALS EQUATION FOR DEVIATIONS FROM IDEAL BEHAVIOR 3 11 COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR 3 12 LIQUEFACTION OF GASES EXPRESSIONS OF CRITICAL CONSTANTS IN TERMS OF VAN DER WAALS CONSTANTS EXPERIMENTAL METHODS FOR LIQUEFACTION OF GASES 3 13 HEAT CAPACITY AND SPECI?C HEATS OF GASES HEAT CAPACITY AT CONSTANT VOLUME HEAT CAPACITY AT CONSTANT PRESSURE 3 14 LIQUID STATE VAPOR PRESSURE 3 15 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES IN LIQUIDS 3 16 CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS: SURFACE TENSION AND VISCOSITY SURFACE TENSION VISCOSITY 4 THERMODYNAMICS FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMODYNAMICS SYSTEM AND ITS SURROUNDINGS TYPES OF THE SYSTEM THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES TYPES OF THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS ENERGY OF THE THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM INTERNAL ENERGY WORK HEAT THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS MATHEMATICAL DERIVATION OF FIRST LAW CALCULATION OF WORK IN DIFFERENT PROCESSES ENTHALPY OR HEAT CONTENT, H MATHEMATICAL DERIVATION OF ?H RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ?U AND ?H EXPANSION AND COMPRESSION OF AN IDEAL GAS ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION OR COMPRESSION ADIABATIC EXPANSION OR COMPRESSION ISOBARIC AND ISOCHORIC PROCESSES CALORIMETRY ?U MEASUREMENT ?H MEASUREMENT THERMOCHEMISTRY ENTHALPY CHANGES DURING PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS ENTHALPY OF FORMATION ENTHALPY OF REACTION 4 10 THERMOCHEMICAL EQUATIONS 4 11 LAWS OF THERMOCHEMISTRY LAVOISIER–LAPLACE LAW HESS’S LAW OF CONSTANT HEAT SUMMATION 4 12 ENTHALPIES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF REACTIONS ENTHALPY OF NEUTRALIZATION ENTHALPY OF COMBUSTION (SYMBOL: ?CH) ENTHALPY OF ATOMIZATION (SYMBOL: ?AH) ENTHALPY OF SOLUTION (SYMBOL: ?SOLH) 4 13 BOND ENTHALPY AND BOND DISSOCIATION ENTHALPY LATTICE ENTHALPY 4 14 SPONTANEITY ENTHALPY A CRITERION FOR SPONTANEITY 4 15 ENTROPY AND SPONTANEITY CALCULATION OF ?S FOR DIFFERENT PROCESSES FACTORS AFFECTING ENTROPY ENTROPY OF PHYSICAL CHANGES ENTROPY OF CHEMICAL CHANGES 4 16 GIBBS ENERGY AND SPONTANEITY MATHEMATICAL DERIVATION OF ?G 4 17 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 4 18 GIBBS ENERGY CHANGE AND EQUILIBRIUM 4 19 THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 5 EQUILIBRIUM I: CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM PHYSICAL EQUILIBRIA SOLID–LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM LIQUID–VAPOR EQUILIBRIUM SOLID–VAPOR EQUILIBRIUM EQUILIBRIUM IN DISSOLUTION OF SOLIDS AND GASES IN LIQUIDS AND HENRY’S LAW CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYSICAL EQUILIBRIA CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA – DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM LAW OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM AND EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT LAW OF MASS ACTION EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS KP AND KC UNITS OF KP AND KC CHARACTERISTICS OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT HOMOGENEOUS AND HETEROGENEOUS EQUILIBRIA APPLICATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS PREDICTING THE EXTENT OF REACTION PREDICTING THE DIRECTION OF REACTION CALCULATING EQUILIBRIUM CONCENTRATIONS DEGREE OF DISSOCIATION GIBBS ENERGY CHANGE AND CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM SIMULTANEOUS EQUILIBRIUM LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE AND FACTORS AFFECTING EQUILIBRIA EFFECT OF CHANGE IN CONCENTRATION EFFECT OF CHANGE IN PRESSURE EFFECT OF CHANGE OF VOLUME EFFECT OF CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF INERT GAS SOME SPECIAL CASES EFFECT OF ADDING CATALYST 6 EQUILIBRIUM II: IONIC EQUILIBRIUM WEAK AND STRONG ELECTROLYTES IONIZATION OF ELECTROLYTES OSTWALD’S DILUTION LAW COMMON ION EFFECT CONCEPTS OF ACIDS AND BASES ARRHENIUS CONCEPT BRÖNSTED–LOWRY CONCEPT LEWIS CONCEPT OF ACIDS AND BASES ACID–BASE EQUILIBRIA AND IONIZATION CONSTANTS IONIZATION CONSTANTS OF WEAK ACIDS IONIZATION CONSTANTS OF WEAK BASES IONIC PRODUCT OF WATER PH CONCEPT DERIVING RELATION BETWEEN KA AND KB RELATIVE STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASES IONIZATION OF POLYPROTIC ACIDS FACTORS AFFECTING ACID STRENGTH ACID–BASE NEUTRALIZATION – FORMATION OF SALTS PH CALCULATION OF SINGLE MONOBASIC ACID OR MONOACIDIC BASE 6 10 PH CALCULATION OF A MIXTURE OF TWO ACIDS OR BASES PH OF MIXTURE OF STRONG ACIDS IN WATER 6 11 PH CALCULATION FOR POLYPROTIC ACIDS 6 12 HYDROLYSIS OF SALTS AND PH OF THEIR SOLUTIONS SALT OF STRONG ACID AND STRONG BASE SALT OF WEAK ACID AND STRONG BASE SALT OF STRONG ACID AND WEAK BASE SALT OF WEAK ACID AND WEAK BASE SALTS OF WEAK POLYPROTIC ACIDS PH CALCULATION OF AMPHOTERIC AND AMPHIPROTIC IONS 6 13 BUFFER SOLUTIONS IDENTIFICATION OF BUFFER PH OF BUFFER SOLUTIONS: HENDERSON–HASSELBALCH EQUATION SALT BUFFER BUFFER CAPACITY BUFFER RANGE 6 14 ACID–BASE TITRATIONS STRONG ACID VS STRONG BASE WEAK ACID VS STRONG BASE WEAK BASE VS STRONG ACID TITRATION CURVES FOR DIPROTIC ACIDS 6 15 THEORY OF INDICATORS WORKING OF INDICATORS OSTWALD AND QUINOID SELECTION OF INDICATORS 6 16 SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA OF SPARINGLY SOLUBLE SALTS SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CONSTANT CALCULATION OF SOLUBILITY OF SALTS EFFECT OF COMMON ION ON SOLUBILITY EFFECT OF HYDROLYSIS ON SOLUBILITY 6 17 PREFERENTIAL PRECIPITATION OF SALTS 6 18 APPLICATIONS OF SOLUBILITY PRODUCT 7 REDOX REACTIONS OXIDATION NUMBER CONCEPT OXIDATION NUMBER AND OXIDATION STATE TYPES OF REDOX REACTIONS OXIDATION AND REDUCTION OXIDATION AND REDUCTION AS ELECTRON TRANSFER REACTIONS DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS AND ACTIVITY SERIES CALCULATION OF N-FACTOR IN A REACTION BALANCING OF REDOX REACTIONS HALF-REACTION (ION ELECTRON) METHOD OXIDATION NUMBER METHOD FASTEST METHOD FOR BALANCING AN EQUATION STOICHIOMETRY OF REDOX REACTIONS AND CONCEPT OF GRAM EQUIVALENTS SOME TERMS USED IN VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS REDOX TITRATIONS APPLICATIONS OF REDOX REACTIONS VOLUME STRENGTH OF H2O2 SOLUTION PERCENTAGE LABELING OF OLEUM OTHER APPLICATIONS 8 SOLID STATE CLASSI?CATION OF SOLIDS BASED ON ARRANGEMENT OF PARTICLES BASED ON NATURE OF BONDS CRYSTAL LATTICES AND UNIT CELLS CRYSTAL SYSTEMS BRAVAIS LATTICES CALCULATIONS INVOLVING UNIT CELL DIMENSIONS CUBIC LATTICE – SIMPLE, FACE CENTERED AND BODY CENTERED CLOSE-PACKING IN CRYSTALS CLOSE PACKING IN ONE DIMENSION CLOSE PACKING IN TWO DIMENSIONS CLOSE PACKING IN THREE DIMENSIONS PACKING EF?CIENCY OR PACKING FRACTION TETRAHEDRAL AND OCTAHEDRAL VOIDS TETRAHEDRAL VOIDS OCTAHEDRAL VOIDS FORMULA OF A COMPOUND AND THE NUMBER OF VOIDS FILLED RADIUS RATIO RULE AND IONIC RADIUS MATHEMATICAL CALCULATION FOR CRITICAL RADIUS RATIO IONIC RADIUS SIMPLE IONIC COMPOUNDS ROCK SALT (OR NACL) TYPE OF STRUCTURE SPHALERITE OR ZINC BLENDE (ZNS) STRUCTURE FLUORITE STRUCTURE (CAF2) CAESIUM CHLORIDE (CSCL) TYPE OF STRUCTURE ANTIFLUORITE STRUCTURE (NA2O) STRUCTURE OF DIAMOND EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE/PRESSURE ON CRYSTAL STRUCTURE 8 10 X-RAY DIFFRACTION USED TO STUDY CRYSTAL STRUCTURES (BRAGG’S LAW) 8 11 DEFECTS IN CRYSTALS TYPES OF POINT DEFECTS 8 12 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY IN METALS CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY IN SEMICONDUCTORS 8 13 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 8 14 DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 9 SOLUTIONS TYPE OF SOLUTIONS SOLUBILITY FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY EFFECT OF NATURE OF SOLUTE AND SOLVENT EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON SOLUBILITY EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON SOLUBILITY OF GASES HENRY’S LAW RELATES GAS SOLUBILITY TO PRESSURE DIFFERENT METHODS FOR EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION CONVERSIONS AMONG CONCENTRATION UNITS VAPOR PRESSURE OF SOLUTIONS RAOULT’S LAW VAPOR PRESSURE OF LIQUID–LIQUID SOLUTIONS VAPOR PRESSURE OF SOLUTIONS OF SOLIDS IN LIQUIDS ENTHALPY OF SOLUTION IDEAL SOLUTIONS VAPOR PRESSURE OF IDEAL BINARY LIQUID SOLUTION 9 10 NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS AZEOTROPIC (CONSTANT BOILING) MIXTURES 9 11 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES AND DETERMINATION OF MOLAR MASS RELATIVE LOWERING OF VAPOR PRESSURE ELEVATION OF BOILING POINT DEPRESSION IN FREEZING POINT OSMOTIC PRESSURE 9 12 ABNORMAL MOLAR MASSES AND VAN’T HOFF FACTOR 10 ELECTROCHEMISTRY ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS GALVANIC CELL ELECTRODE POTENTIAL OXIDATION AND REDUCTION POTENTIAL POTENTIAL OF A CELL OR EMF REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE CELLS ELECTROCHEMICAL CONVENTIONS MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRODE POTENTIAL SOME REFERENCE ELECTRODES ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES THERMODYNAMICS OF A CELL CELL POTENTIAL AND GIBBS ENERGY CHANGE NERNST EQUATION EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT FROM NERNST EQUATION APPLICATIONS OF NERNST EQUATION CALCULATION OF E°CELL TYPES OF ELECTRODES CONCENTRATION CELLS ELECTRODE CONCENTRATION CELLS ELECTROLYTE CONCENTRATION CELLS APPLICATIONS OF CONCENTRATION CELLS ELECTROLYTIC CELLS AND ELECTROLYSIS FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS PRODUCTS FORMED IN ELECTROLYSIS 10 10 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS CORROSION AND ITS PREVENTION ELECTROPLATING PURIFICATION OF METALS ELECTROMETALLURGY PREPARATION OF COMPOUNDS 10 11 BATTERIES PRIMARY CELLS SECONDARY (STORAGE) CELLS LITHIUM BATTERIES FUEL CELLS 10 12 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTANCE METALLIC CONDUCTORS ELECTROLYTIC CONDUCTORS FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTROLYTIC CONDUCTANCE 10 13 CONDUCTANCE IN SOLUTIONS OF ELECTROLYTES INTERIONIC ATTRACTION THEORY OF CONDUCTANCE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE AND CONDUCTANCE MEASUREMENT OF THE CONDUCTANCE OF IONIC SOLUTIONS MOLAR AND EQUIVALENT CONDUCTANCE KOHLRAUSCH’S LAW APPLICATIONS OF KOHLRAUSCH LAW OF INDEPENDENT IONIC MIGRATION 11 CHEMICAL KINETICS RATE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION AVERAGE AND INSTANTANEOUS RATES FACTORS IN?UENCING RATE OF A REACTION DIFFERENTIAL RATE EXPRESSION AND RATE CONSTANT ELEMENTARY AND COMPLEX REACTIONS MOLECULARITY OF A REACTION ORDER OF A REACTION UNITS OF RATE CONSTANT CALCULATIONS OF ORDER AND MOLECULARITY BASED ON REACTION MECHANISMS PSEUDO ORDER REACTIONS INTEGRATED RATE EQUATIONS ZERO ORDER REACTIONS FIRST ORDER REACTIONS SECOND ORDER REACTIONS THIRD ORDER REACTIONS HIGHER NTH ORDER REACTIONS REPLACEMENT OF CONCENTRATION TERMS BY OTHER VARIABLES IN FIRST ORDER REACTIONS 11 10 HALF-LIFE OF REACTIONS AND RADIOACTIVITY RADIOACTIVITY 11 11 DETERMINATION OF ORDER OF SIMPLE REACTIONS – EXPERIMENTAL METHODS 11 12 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE – ARRHENIUS THEORY ACTIVATED COMPLEX THEORY AND CONCEPT OF ACTIVATION ENERGY ARRHENIUS EQUATION AND CALCULATION OF ACTIVATION ENERGY 11 13 EFFECT OF CATALYST 11 14 COLLISION THEORY LIMITATION OF COLLISION THEORY RISING TEMPERATURE INCREASES REACTION RATE 12 SURFACE CHEMISTRY ADSORPTION ADSORPTION AND RELATED PHENOMENA ADSORPTION MECHANISM PHYSISORPTION AND CHEMISORPTION FACTORS AFFECTING ADSORPTION ADSORPTION OF GASES ON SOLIDS ADSORPTION OF SOLIDS FROM SOLUTIONS ADSORPTION ISOTHERMS FREUNDLICH ADSORPTION ISOTHERM LANGMUIR ADSORPTION ISOTHERM MULTILAYER ADSORPTION SOME APPLICATIONS OF ADSORPTION CATALYSIS CHARACTERISTICS OF CATALYSTS TYPES OF CATALYTIC REACTIONS THEORY OF HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS SHAPE-SELECTIVE CATALYSIS BY ZEOLITES ENZYME CATALYSIS CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF ENZYMES MECHANISM OF ENZYME CATALYSIS 12 10 CATALYSTS IN INDUSTRY 12 11 COLLOIDS TYPES OF COLLOIDS MECHANISM OF MICELLE FORMATION 12 12 PREPARATION OF COLLOIDS DISPERSION METHODS CONDENSATION METHODS 12 13 PURI?CATION OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS 12 14 PROPERTIES OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS 12 15 COAGULATION OR PRECIPITATION AND HARDY–SCHULZE RULE COAGULATION OF LYOPHOBIC SOLS COAGULATION OF LYOPHILIC SOLS HARDY–SCHULZE RULE 12 16 PROTECTION OF COLLOIDS 12 17 EMULSIONS EMULSIFICATION AND DE-EMULSIFICATION 12 18 ROLE OF COLLOIDS IN NATURAL PHENOMENA AND IN INDUSTRY INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF COLLOIDS