ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY
CONTENTS I N T R O D U C T I O N SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY M E X P E R I M E N T PROPERTIES AND CHANGES OF MATTER THE CHEMISTRY OF SOME HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS SEPARATION OF CATIONS BY PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY E X P E R I M E N T DENSITIES OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS SIMPLEST FORMULA OF A COMPOUND HYDRATES PERCENTAGE OF OXYGEN IN POTASSIUM CHLORATE CALORIMETRY CHEMICAL NAMES AND FORMULAS: A STUDY ASSIGNMENT E X P E R I M E N T 1 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS: A STUDY ASSIGNMENT M E X P E R I M E N T 1 MOLE RATIO FOR A CHEMICAL REACTION TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF SOME COMMON IONS SEPARATION OF CATIONS MOLECULAR MODELS: A STUDY ASSIGNMENT MOLAR VOLUME OF A GAS MOLAR MASS DETERMINATION BY FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION THE CONDUCTIVITY OF SOLUTIONS: A DEMONSTRATION NET IONIC EQUATIONS: A STUDY ASSIGNMENT E X P E R I M E N T 2 0 & 2 TITRATION OF ACIDS AND BASES: AN INTRODUCTION E X P E R I M E N T 2 TITRATION OF ACIDS AND BASES–I TITRATION OF ACIDS AND BASES—II DETERMINATION OF A CHEMICAL EQUATION A STUDY OF REACTION RATES M E X P E R I M E N T 2 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM MEASUREMENT OF PH WITH INDICATORS INTRODUCTION TO OXIDATION–REDUCTION REACTIONS NOMENCLATURE OF SIMPLE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS: A STUDY ASSIGNMENT HYDROCARBONS AND ALCOHOLS ALDEHYDES, KETONES, AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS E X P E R I M E N T 3 ESTERS PREPARATION OF ASPIRIN PREPARATION AND PROPERTIES OF A SOAP CARBOHYDRATES LIPIDS AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS ENZYMES W O R K S H E E T S SIGNI?CANT FIGURES DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AVOGADRO’S NUMBER MOLES FORMULA WRITING EQUATION BALANCING TYPES OF REACTIONS STOICHIOMETRY ATOMIC STRUCTURE GASES SOLUTIONS OXIDATION REDUCTION ACIDS AND BASES SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY A CHEMISTRY LABORATORY CAN BE, AND SHOULD BE, A SAFE PLACE TO WORK ACCIDENTS CAN BE PREVENTED IF YOU THINK ABOUT WHAT YOU ARE DOING AT ALL TIMES, USE GOOD JUDGMENT, OBSERVE SAFETY RULES, AND FOLLOW DIRECTIONS IN ADDITION TO THE RULES BELOW, COMMENTS APPEAR IN EACH EXPERIMENT TO ALERT YOU TO PROBABLE HAZARDS, INCLUDING SPECI?C INSTRUCTIONS ON HOW TO PROTECT YOURSELF AND OTHERS AGAINST INJURY BE SURE TO READ THESE AND KEEP THE WARNINGS IN MIND AS YOU PERFORM EACH EXPERIMENT DO NOT DEVIATE FROM THE PROCEDURES GIVEN IN THIS BOOK UNLESS YOU ARE INSTRUCTED TO DO SO THERE IS NO SUBSTITUTE FOR SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY LEARN AND OBSERVE THESE SAFETY RULES AT ALL TIMES: 1 EYE PROTECTION (OSHA APPROVED GOGGLES, SAFETY GLASSES) MUST BE WORN BY ALL STUDENTS WHEN WORKING IN THE LABORATORY THIS INCLUDES CLEANUP TIMES AND TIMES WHEN YOU YOURSELF MAY NOT BE WORKING ON AN EXPERIMENT, BUT SOMEONE NEAR YOU IS 2 DO NOT EAT OR DRINK IN THE LABORATORY 3 DO NOT TASTE ANY CHEMICAL 4 PURSES, SWEATERS, LUNCH BAGS, BACKPACKS, AND EXTRA BOOKS SHOULD BE STORED IN DESIGNATED AREAS, BUT NOT IN THE LABORATORY WORKING AREA BACKPACKS, IN PARTICULAR, SHOULD NOT BE ON THE ?OOR NEAR YOUR LABORA- TORY DESK 5 SHOES MUST BE WORN IN THE LABORATORY AT ALL TIMES BARE FEET ARE PROHIBITED 6 LONG HAIR SHOULD BE TIED BACK OR PINNED UP, SO IT WILL NOT FALL INTO CHEMICALS OR ?AMES 7 DO NOT WORK IN THE LABORATORY ALONE AN INSTRUCTOR OR TEACHING ASSISTANT MUST BE PRESENT 8 NEVER PERFORM ANY UNAUTHORIZED EXPERIMENT 9 IF AN ACCIDENT OCCURS IN THE LABORATORY, NO MATTER HOW MINOR, REPORT IT TO THE INSTRUCTOR IMMEDIATELY 10 ALL EXPERIMENTS OR OPERATIONS PRODUCING OR USING CHEMICALS THAT RELEASE POISONOUS, HARMFUL, OR OBJECTIONABLE FUMES OR VAPORS MUST BE PERFORMED IN THE FUME HOOD 11 NEVER POINT THE OPEN END OF A TEST TUBE AT YOURSELF OR AT ANOTHER PERSON 12 IF YOU WANT TO SMELL A SUBSTANCE, DO NOT HOLD IT DIRECTLY TO YOUR NOSE; INSTEAD, HOLD THE CONTAINER A FEW CENTIMETERS AWAY AND USE YOUR HAND TO FAN THE VAPORS TOWARD YOU 13 HOT GLASSWARE AND COLD GLASSWARE LOOK ALIKE IF YOU HEAT GLASS AND PUT IT DOWN TO COOL, DO NOT PICK IT UP TOO SOON DO NOT PUT HOT GLASSWARE WHERE ANOTHER PERSON IS APT TO PICK IT UP I N T R O D U C T I O N 14 WHEN INSERTING A GLASS TUBE, ROD, OR THERMOMETER INTO A RUBBER TUBE OR STOPPER, PROTECT YOUR HANDS BY HOLDING THE MATERIAL WITH GLOVES OR LAYERS OF PAPER TOWEL LUBRICATING THE GLASS WITH WATER OR GLYCERINE IS HELPFUL 15 WHEN DILUTING ACIDS, ALWAYS ADD THE ACID TO WATER, NEVER WATER TO THE ACID 16 MOST ORGANIC SOLVENTS ARE ?AMMABLE KEEP THESE LIQUIDS AWAY FROM OPEN ?AMES 17 DO NOT POUR ORGANIC SOLVENTS DOWN A SINK IN THE OPEN LABORATORY DISPOSE OF THEM AS DIRECTED BY YOUR INSTRUCTOR, OR DOWN A DRAIN IN THE FUME HOOD FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER 18 WHEN DISPOSING OF LIQUID CHEMICALS OR SOLUTIONS IN THE SINK, ?USH WITH LARGE QUANTITIES OF WATER 19 DO NOT WIND THE ELECTRIC CORD AROUND A HOT PLATE IF IT IS STILL WARM THE HOT PLATE MIGHT MELT THE RUBBER INSULATION 20 DO NOT DISPOSE OF MATCHES, PAPER, OR SOLID CHEMICALS IN THE SINK MATCHES, AFTER YOU ARE SURE THEY ARE EXTINGUISHED, AND PAPER SHOULD BE DISCARDED INTO A WASTEBASKET SOLID CHEMICALS SHOULD BE DISPOSED OF IN WHATEVER FACILITY IS PROVIDED IN YOUR LABORATORY 21 DO NOT PUT BROKEN GLASSWARE INTO WASTEBASKETS DISPOSE OF IT IN DES- IGNATED PLACES 22 IF YOU SHOULD HAVE SKIN CONTACT WITH ANY HARMFUL CHEMICAL, ?USH THE CONTACT AREA WITH LARGE QUANTITIES OF WATER HAVE A NEARBY STUDENT CALL THE INSTRUCTOR FOR AID 23 IF YOU SPILL ANY CHEMICAL, SOLID OR LIQUID, BE SURE TO CLEAN IT UP SO ANOTHER STUDENT DOES NOT COME INTO CONTACT WITH IT AND PERHAPS BE INJURED BY IT 24 CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS, HAZARD LEVELS, AND SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CHEMICALS YOU USE IN THE LABORATORY ARE DESCRIBED IN MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS (MSDS) THAT ARE GENERALLY AVAILABLE IN THE LABORATORY FOLLOW DIRECTIONS GIVEN BY YOUR INSTRUCTOR IN REGARD TO THESE SHEETS PAY CLOSE ATTENTION TO PARTICULAR SAFETY PRECAUTIONS YOUR INSTRUCTOR TALKS ABOUT BEFORE YOU BEGIN EACH EXPERIMENT 25 BEFORE LEAVING THE LABORATORY, WIPE THE DESK TOP AND WASH YOUR HANDS WITH SOAP AND WATER P R E V E N T I N G C O N T A M I N A T I O N O F C H E M I C A L S TO CONDUCT EXPERIMENTS SUCCESSFULLY, YOU MUST AVOID CONTAMINATING THE CHEMICAL REAGENTS YOU USE, OR REAGENTS THAT WILL BE USED BY OTHER STUDENTS AFTER YOU THE FOLLOWING PROCEDURES WILL HELP MINIMIZE THE POSSIBILITY OF CONTAMINATION: 1 AFTER WASHING GLASSWARE, ALWAYS USE A ?NAL RINSE OF DEIONIZED OR DISTILLED WATER 2 AVOID HANDLING MORE THAN ONE REAGENT BOTTLE AT A TIME, SO YOU DO NOT INTERCHANGE THEIR STOPPERS BY MISTAKE ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY FOR HIGH SCHOOLS 3 WHEN SELECTING A REAGENT BOTTLE, READ THE LABEL TWICE TO BE SURE YOU HAVE THE CHEMICAL YOU WANT 4 DO NOT LAY TOPS OF REAGENT BOTTLES OR STOPPERS ON THE LABORATORY BENCH 5 USE SEPARATE SPATULAS TO REMOVE DIFFERENT SOLID CHEMICALS FROM THEIR BOTTLES 6 NEVER REMOVE A LIQUID REAGENT FROM A STOCK BOTTLE WITH AN EYE DROPPER POUR A SMALL PORTION INTO A CLEAN, DRY BEAKER, AND USE YOUR EYE DROPPER TO REMOVE THE LIQUID FROM THE BEAKER 7 WHEN A QUANTITY OF A CHEMICAL IS REMOVED FROM ITS ORIGINAL CONTAINER, WHETHER IT IS A SOLID OR A LIQUID, DO NOT RETURN ANY EXCESS TO THE STOCK BOTTLE DISPOSE OF THE UNUSED PORTION AS DIRECTED BY YOUR INSTRUCTOR 8 NEVER WEIGH A CHEMICAL DIRECTLY ON A BALANCE PAN USE A PREWEIGHED CONTAINER WEIGHING PAPER IS ACCEPTABLE FOR MOST SOLID CHEMICALS 9 SOME CHEMICALS REACT WITH SOME STOPPERS IF YOU ARE GOING TO STORE A CHEMICAL OR SOLUTION IN A BOTTLE OTHER THAN ITS ORIGINAL CONTAINER, BE SURE THE STOPPER YOU SELECT (GLASS, RUBBER, CORK) IS SUITABLE FOR THAT SUBSTANCE 10 NEVER LEAVE A STOCK BOTTLE UNCOVERED BE SURE YOU COVER THE BOTTLE WITH THE PROPER COVER ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY FOR HIGH SCHOOLS COMMON LABORATORY EQUIPMENT SPOT PLATE GLASS ROD WITH RUBBER POLICEMAN BEAKER ERLENMEYER FLASK SUCTION FLASK FUNNEL BUCHNER FUNNEL CRUCIBLE AND COVER TEST-TUBE BRUSH EYE DROPPER GRADUATED CYLINDER THERMOMETER PIPET TEST TUBE BURET ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY FOR HIGH SCHOOLS COMMON LABORATORY EQUIPMENT CRUCIBLE TONGS TEST-TUBE HOLDER BUNSEN BURNER (TIRRILL TYPE) RING SUPPORT RING STAND WITH SUPPORT BURET CLAMP UTILITY CLAMP CLAY TRIANGLE WIRE GAUZE EVAPORATING DISH WATCH GLASS TRIPOD ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY FOR HIGH SCHOOLS