SURFACES, CHEMISTRY AND APPLICATIONS
1 Overview of surface and interface science 1 Introduction 1 11 Atoms and molecules 1 12 Element, compound, substance, and mixture 2 13 Matter and material 4 14 Chemical formulae 7 15 Chemical reactions 7 2 Bulk materials and nanomaterials 8 21 Definitions 8 22 Differences between bulk and nanomaterials 12 23 Types of nanomaterials 15 3 Science of nanomaterials 19 31 Chemistry of materials 19 32 Science of nanomaterials 19 33 Nanoscience and nanotechnology 19 4 Surface science and interface 22 41 Surface science 22 42 Surface chemistry 24 43 Surface physics 24 44 Surface in geometry 25 45 Difference between surface and interface 25 46 Examples of surface and interface 26 5 Application of surface science 30 51 Adsorption 31 52 Colloid 32 53 Emulsion 33 54 Other applications 34 6 Theories of surface science 35 61 The Hamiltonian 36 References 37 2 Adsorption technology and surface science 1 Introduction 39 2 Adsorption and absorption 41 3 Adhesion 41 4 Tribology 44 5 Adsorption terms 47 6 Classification of adsorption process 48 61 Physisorption 50 62 Chemisorption 52 63 Ion exchange 52 7 Factors affecting degree of adsorption 53 71 Surface area 53 72 Heat of adsorption 55 73 Solubility of adsorbate 55 74 Other factors 55 8 Requirements for sorbents 57 9 Interactions 57 10 BET theory 57 11 Adsorption principles 58 12 Adsorption equilibrium 63 13 Conclusions 63 References 63 3 Kinetic models and thermodynamics of adsorption processes: classification 1 Adsorption reaction models and empirical models 65 11 Overview 65 12 Steps in adsorption mass transfer 65 2 Mass transfer 67 21 Stages in sorption process 67 22 Why study kinetics for sorption process 70 3 Mass transfer models 70 31 Pseudo-first-order kinetic model 70 32 Pseudo-second-order kinetic model 73 33 Mixed-order model 75 34 Elovich model 75 35 Ritchie’s equation 76 36 BrouerseSotolongo fractal kinetic model 76 37 Pseudo-nth-order model 76 4 External diffusion models 77 41 Frusawa and Smith model 77 42 Mathews and Weber (M&W) model 77 43 Phenomenological external mass transfer model 78 5 Internal diffusion models 78 51 Boyd’s intraparticle diffusion model 78 52 Weber and Morris model 81 53 Phenomenological internal mass transfer model 81 6 Pore volume and surface diffusion model 81 7 Models for adsorption onto active sites 82 8 Biot number 82 81 Calculation of biot number 82 82 Why calculate biot number 82 9 Adsorption process and model evaluation 83 91 Coefficient of correlation 83 92 Chi-square 84 93 Other indicators 84 10 Adsorption thermodynamics 85 101 Gibbs free energy of change (DG) 85 102 Enthalpy change 86 103 Entropy change 86 104 Isosteric heat of adsorption 86 105 Hopping number 88 106 Adsorption potential 88 107 Adsorption density 88 108 Sticking probability 88 109 Activation energy 91 11 Conclusions 91 References 92 4 Isotherm models of adsorption processes on adsorbents and nanoadsorbents 1 Isotherm adsorption models 99 2 Adsorption empirical isotherms 101 21 Linear model 101 22 Freundlich adsorption isotherm 103 23 RedlichePeterson Isotherm 108 24 Sips model 110 25 Toth isotherm model 111 26 Temkin isotherm model 111 3 Adsorption models based on Polanyi’s potential theory 112 31 DubinineRadushkevich model 112 32 DubinineAstakhov model 113 4 Chemical adsorption models 114 41 Langmuir model 115 42 Volmer isotherm model 116 5 Physical adsorption models 117 51 BET adsorption isotherm 117 52 Aranovich model 121 6 Classification based on parameters 122 61 One-parameter isotherm 122 62 Two-parameter isotherm 122 63 Three-parameter isotherms 123 64 Four-parameter isotherms 123 65 Five-parameter isotherms 123 7 Applications of adsorption isotherms 123 8 Conclusions 124 References 124 5 Development and synthesis of nanoparticles and nanoadsorbents 1 Introduction 127 2 Classification of nanoadsorbents 127 3 Classification of nanoadsorbents 131 31 Organic nanoparticles 131 32 Inorganic nanoparticles 132 33 Carbon-based nanoparticles 136 34 Magnetic-based nanoparticles 136 35 Mixed oxide nanostructures 136 36 Nanocomposites 137 4 Approaches for preparation of adsorbents and nanoadsorbents 138 5 Preparation of nanomaterials 141 51 Top-down approach 141 52 Bottom-up approach 144 6 Biotechnological approach 155 7 Microwave-assisted synthesis of nanomaterials 155 8 Synthesis of polymers 158 9 Preparation of nanocomposites 160 10 Conclusions 162 References 162 6 Large-scale production of nanomaterials and adsorbents 1 Introduction 167 2 Prerequisites of introducing nanomaterials 167 3 Manufacturing, industry, and academia 168 4 Terminologies used in the scale-up process 168 5 Steps in scale-up production of a material 169 51 Lab-scale, bench scale, pilot scale, and scale-up 170 52 Lab-scale 171 53 Bench scale 172 54 Pilot plant studies 173 55 Industrial scale 174 56 Down-scaling 176 6 Gas-, liquid-, and solid-based methods 176 61 Vapor-phase synthesis 176 62 Liquid-phase synthesis 176 63 Comparison 177 7 Advantages of liquid-based wet chemical methods 178 8 Large-scale production of nanomaterials 178 81 Classification of methods 179 82 The top-down approach 179 83 The bottom-up approach 179 9 Requirements for scale-up 183 10 Challenges to scale up nanomaterial production 184 11 Converting waste materials into adsorbents 186 111 Methods of conversion wastes to value-added products 186 112 Procedures of conversion 186 113 Pyrolysis 190 114 Physical or chemical treatment 193 115 Some important considerations 194 12 Conclusion 194 References 195 7 Characterization and description of adsorbents and nanomaterials 1 Introduction 199 2 Properties to be determined 200 3 Characterization of nanomaterials as adsorbents 201 4 Structural characterization 203 41 Raman spectroscopy 203 42 Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy 203 43 Attenuated total reflectance infrared spectroscopy 204 44 Nuclear magnetic resonance 204 45 UVeVis spectroscopy and photoluminescence 204 5 Surface characterization 205 51 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy 205 52 Low-energy ion-scattering spectroscopy 205 53 Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry 206 6 Elemental analysis 206 61 Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry 206 62 Elemental analyzer for C H N O S analysis 207 63 Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis 207 64 X-ray fluorescence 207 7 Crystallinity characterization 208 71 X-ray diffraction 208 72 Single-crystal X-ray diffraction 209 73 Small-angle X-ray scattering 209 8 Morphology 209 81 Scanning electron microscopy 210 82 Transmission electron microscopy 216 83 Scanning tunneling microscopy 219 84 Atomic force microscopy 219 9 Pore structure, size, and surface area 224 91 Physisorption, BET, and BJH fitting 224 92 Dynamic light scattering 224 93 Other techniques 225 10 Surface charge 225 101 Point of zero charge 225 102 Zeta potential measured via Zetasizer instrument 226 11 Thermal stability 226 12 Biological evaluation 226 121 In vitro assessment methods 226 122 In vivo toxicity assessment methods 227 13 Mechanical properties 227 14 Magnetic properties 227 15 Benefits of nanomaterials characterization for industry 227 16 Challenges with nanomaterials 229 17 Conclusions 230 References 230 8 Properties of nanoadsorbents and adsorption mechanisms 1 Introduction 233 2 Comparison between properties of adsorbents and nanoadsorbents 233 3 Why nanomaterials? 238 4 Properties of nanomaterials as adsorbents 239 41 Innate (inherent) surface properties 239 42 External functionalization 240 43 Zeta potential 243 44 Point of zero charge 244 45 Surface area 244 46 Mechanical properties 244 47 High thermal stability 245 48 Support surface 245 49 Antimicrobial activity 245 5 Factors affecting properties and performance of nanomaterials 245 6 Types of nanoadsorbents according to their properties 246 61 Metal nanoparticles 246 62 Metal oxide 246 63 Nanoparticles coatings 247 64 Metal chalcogenides 247 65 Magnetic nanoparticles 247 66 Nanoporous materials 247 67 Quantum dots 249 68 Silicene 250 69 MXenes 250 610 2D pnictogens (phosphorene, arsenene, antimonene, and bismuthene) 250 611 Metal-organic framework 251 612 Coreeshell nanoparticles 251 613 Carbon-based materials 251 7 Adsorption system 255 8 Adsorption mechanisms 257 9 Key features in nanoadsorbents 258 10 Conclusions 260 References 261 9 Reactors and procedures used for environmental remediation 1 Introduction 265 2 Potential uses of nanomaterials 265 3 Nanomaterial applications in water treatment 266 4 Treatment technologies and methods 268 41 Layout of water treatment plant 268 42 Types of reactors used in adsorption 269 5 Batch adsorption reactors for evaluating nanomaterials 271 51 Procedure and steps of testing 271 52 Testing powdered and granular adsorbents 271 6 Column adsorption reactors for evaluating nanomaterials 275 7 Reactors to evaluate nanomaterial-based membranes 278 8 Reactors to evaluate nanocatalyst photodegradation activity 280 9 Hybrid technologies for water treatment 282 91 Photocatalytic membrane reactors 282 92 Photoelectrochemical reactor 287 93 Other types of hybrid systems for water treatment using membrane 288 10 Conclusions 289 References 289 10 Applications of nanomaterials to environmental remediation 1 Introduction on the adsorption process 291 2 Adsorption 291 21 Adsorption from solution phase 291 22 Applications of adsorption 294 23 Factors affecting adsorption 294 3 Adsorption in removing pollutants from water 295 31 Current purification methods 295 32 Drawbacks in the present water treatment process 296 33 Nanotechnology in water treatment 297 34 Adsorption mechanisms 297 4 Nanoadsorbents 299 41 Carbon nanostructures 299 42 Clays and modified clays 301 43 Metal oxideebased nanomaterials 301 44 Zeolites, alumina, and silica 302 45 Magnetic nanoadsorbents 305 46 Nanocomposites 305 47 Regeneration and reuse 307 5 Pilot scale 309 6 Limitations of nanomaterials for water applications and future trends 310 61 Limitations 310 62 Future research trends 311 7 Conclusion 311 References 312