COAL STRUCTURE

By V. LAKAA

EXPOSURE VIA CONTAMINATED FISH EXPOSURE VIA DRINKING WATER COAL ASH ‘‘DAMAGE CASES’’ PROTECTING HUMAN HEALTH FROM COAL ASH VULNERABLE POPULATIONS BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES COAL ASH REGULATION COAL AND CLIMATE CHANGE COAL AND GREENHOUSE GASES CLIMATE CHANGE AND HEALTH COAL, HUMAN HEALTH AND THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE REFERENCES THE STATE OF COAL REGULATION AROUND THE WORLD: INSIGHTS FROM THE UNITED STATES, CHINA, GERMANY AND INDIA INTRODUCTION GLOBAL COAL MARKET TRENDS WILL CLIMATE COMMITMENTS DRIVE A SHIFT AWAY FROM COAL? NATIONAL POLICIES AND POLICY DRIVERS RELATED TO COAL OPPOSITION TO COAL REGULATION TRANSITION ASSISTANCE CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE: THE FUTURE OF COAL? COAL REGULATION IN THE UNITED STATES: A POLITICAL FOOTBALL REGULATING CO2 EMISSIONS FROM COAL: THE EMBATTLED ‘‘CLEAN POWER PLAN’’ THE LEGAL ROUTE TO FEDERAL REGULATION THE CLEAN POWER PLAN THE LITIGATION TRUMP ADMINISTRATION REGIONAL/STATE REGULATION OF CO2 EMISSIONS FROM COAL FIRED PLANTS REGULATION OF MERCURY AND OTHER AIR TOXICS FROM COAL PLANTS: WHAT A LONG, STRANGE TRIP IT’S BEEN ACID RAIN: A NOTABLE SUCCESS STORY CONCLUSION LIQUID FUELS AND CHEMICAL FEEDSTOCKS ORGANIC STRUCTURE OF COAL LIQUEFACTION ROUTES HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CURRENT SITUATION SCOPE COAL GASIFICATION AND FISCHER–TROPSCH SYNTHESIS (INDIRECT LIQUEFACTION) GASIFICATION WATER–GAS SHIFT REACTION UNDERGROUND COAL GASIFICATION (UCG) SYNGAS CONVERSION STAGING DIRECT LIQUEFACTION AND PRIMARY CONVERSION CONCEPT REACTION MECHANISMS SOLVENTS CATALYSIS IMPACT OF COAL STRUCTURE ON CONVERSION AND PRODUCT COMPOSITION UPGRADING INTERMEDIATE PRODUCTS TO TRANSPORT FUELS AND CHEMICALS HYDROPROCESSING HEAVY COAL LIQUIDS REFINED DISTILLATE FRACTIONS OTHER PROCESS VARIANTS NON-DONOR SOLVENTS DIRECT HYDROGENATION INTEGRATED PROCESSING WITH OTHER FEEDSTOCKS CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE AND CARBON CAPTURE, UTILISATION AND STORAGE A BRIEF HISTORY OF GLOBAL WARMING SCIENCE, STARTING WITH TYNDALL AND ARRHENIUS EARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE (CCS) TECHNOLOGY AN OUTLINE OF THE VARIOUS ROUTES FOR CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE (CCS) INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE DEPLOYMENT OF CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE (CCS) PRE-COMBUSTION, POST-COMBUSTION AND OXY-FUEL TECHNOLOGIES AN EXAMINATION OF THE POTENTIAL OF PRE-COMBUSTION ROUTES POST-COMBUSTION OPTIONS OXY-FUEL TECHNOLOGY CHEMICAL LOOPING AND CALCIUM LOOPING TECHNOLOGIES STATE OF THE ART CHEMICAL LOOPING TECHNOLOGY STATE OF THE ART CALCIUM LOOPING TECHNOLOGY HYBRID CHEMICAL AND CALCIUM LOOPING TECHNOLOGIES ALTERNATIVE SOLID CO2 CAPTURE APPROACHES BIOMASS WITH CO2 COMBUSTION (BIO-CCS) POTENTIAL FOR USING BIOMASS IN NEGATIVE CO2 SCHEMES EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL BIO-CCS TECHNOLOGY AIR CAPTURE, MINERALISATION AND CO2 UTILISATION (CCUS) AN EVALUATION OF AIR CAPTURE OPTIONS A PRIMER ON MINERALISATION AND ITS POTENTIAL CO2 UTILISATION AND ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY CONCLUSIONS