THE CHEMISTRY OF COMMERCE
CONTENTS TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF OXIDES 1 1 INDUSTRIAL SECTORS IN DEVELOPMENT MECHANICAL APPLICATIONS OF OXIDES APPLICATION OF OXIDES IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING OXIDES FOR HIGH-TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF OXIDES 1 2 RESERVES, AVAILABILITY AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF OXIDES AND THEIR ORES BAO CU2O CAO REFERENCES FUNDAMENTALS OF OXIDE MANUFACTURING 2 1 INTRODUCTION PRINCIPAL MANUFACTURING PROCESSES OXIDE POWDERS MAJOR PHENOMENA IN MANUFACTURING 2 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF SELECTED PROCESSES RELATED TO OXIDE MANUFACTURING INTRODUCTION FUNDAMENTALS OF REACTIONS IN GASEOUS PHASE TYPES OF REACTION THERMODYNAMIC CALCULATIONS GAS IN MOTION THERMODYNAMICS OF CONDENSATION FUNDAMENTAL PHENOMENA IN SOLUTIONS DI?USION BROWNIAN MOTION AND STOKES’ LAW FUNDAMENTAL PHENOMENA IN SUSPENSIONS FORCES AND ENERGIES IN SUSPENSION CHARACTERIZATION OF SUSPENSIONS GELATION CHARACTERIZATION OF POWDERS SIZE AND SHAPE CHEMICAL AND PHASE COMPOSITION EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL MORPHOLOGY APPARENT DENSITY AND FLOWABILITY QUESTIONS 2 3 SELECTED OXIDE POWDER PRODUCTION METHODS GRANULATION OF POWDERS DIRECT GRANULATION SPRAY DRYING HIGH-TEMPERATURE SYNTHESIS OF POWDERS SINTERING AND MELTING SELF-PROPAGATING HIGH-TEMPERATURE SYNTHESIS MECHANOFUSION SYNTHESIS OF POWDERS FROM SOLUTIONS SOL–GEL SYNTHESIS BY REACTION OF LIQUIDS (WET PRECIPITATION) POWDER SYNTHESIS BY CVD 2 4 MANUFACTURING OBJECTS IN 2D: FILMS AND COATINGS CHEMICAL METHODS OF THIN FILM DEPOSITION ELECTROLYTIC ANODIZATION PHYSICAL METHODS OF THIN FILM DEPOSITION CVD METHODS PVD METHODS METHODS OF COATING DEPOSITION THERMAL SPRAYING BULK COATINGS METHODS 2 5 MANUFACTURING OBJECTS IN 3D FORMING SINTERING RAPID PROTOTYPING EXTRACTION, PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINA 3 1 INTRODUCTION 3 2 RESERVES OF BAUXITE AND MINING 3 3 METHODS OF OBTAINING ALUMINA BAYER PROCESS CHEMICAL BACKGROUNDS TECHNOLOGY OF THE BAYER PROCESS WASTE MANAGEMENT PURE ALUMINA POWDER SYNTHESIS ALUMINA RECOVERY FROM COAL ASHES SINTERING PROCESS LEACHING PROCESS 3 4 PROPERTIES OF ALUMINA THERMODYNAMICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MONOCRISTALLINE ALUMINA PROPERTIES OF ALUMINA THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALUMINA SELF-DI?USION DATA OF ALUMINA ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF ALUMINA DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF ALUMINA MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ALUMINA 3 5 METHODS OF ALUMINA FUNCTIONALIZING ALUMINA IN 2D: FILMS AND COATINGS CHEMICAL METHODS OF ALUMINA FILM DEPOSITION ATOMISTIC METHODS OF ALUMINA FILMS DEPOSITION GRANULAR METHODS OF ALUMINA COATING DEPOSITION ALUMINA IN 3D LASER MACHINING 3 6 APPLICATIONS OF ALUMINA IN DI?ERENT INDUSTRIES MECHANICAL ENGINEERING THREAD GUIDES IN TEXTILE INDUSTRIES ARMOR CUTTING TOOLS ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL APPLICATIONS SUBSTRATES FOR MICROELECTRONICS CORONA ROLLS BIOMEDICAL HIP PROSTHESIS DENTAL PROSTHESES OTHER BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS CHEMICAL AND THERMAL INDUSTRIES CATALYST SUPPORTS HEAT EXCHANGER EMERGING APPLICATIONS EXTRACTION, PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF ZIRCONIA 4 1 INTRODUCTION 4 2 WORLD RESERVES OF ORES AND MINING INDUSTRY 4 3 METALLURGY OF ZIRCONIA CHLORINATION AND THERMAL DECOMPOSITION ALKALINE OXIDE DECOMPOSITION LIME FUSION THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF ZIRCON IN A PLASMA 4 4 PROPERTIES OF ZIRCONIA MONOCRYSTAL PARTIALLY AND FULLY STABILIZED ZIRCONIA POWDERS BINARY SYSTEM ZRO2–MGO BINARY SYSTEM ZRO2–CAO 4 5 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ZIRCONIA DILATATION COE?CIENT WITH TEMPERATURE IONIC CONDUCTIVITY MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND TOUGHNESS CORROSION RESISTANCE IN WATER ENVIRONMENT ZIRCONIA COMPOSITE CERAMICS 4 6 CERAMIC SINTERING ZIRCONIA SINTERING SINTERING OF ALUMINA–ZIRCONIA COMPOSITE CERAMICS 4 7 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF ZIRCONIA SOLID ELECTROLYTE ZIRCONIA SENSOR THERMAL BARRIER COATINGS 4 8 FUTURE TRENDS OF ZIRCONIA MATERIALS SYNTHESIS, PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF YBA2CU3O7?X 5 1 INTRODUCTION 5 2 PHASE DIAGRAM 5 3 METHODS OF YBA2CU3O7?X POWDER MANUFACTURING REACTIVE SINTERING SYNTHESIS OF POWDER FROM SOLUTIONS SOL–GEL WET PRECIPITATION METHODS FREEZE-DRYING METHOD 5 4 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY OF YBA2CU3O7?X FUNDAMENTALS OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY HIGH-TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTORS 5 5 PROPERTIES OF YBCO 5 6 METHODS OF YBA2CU3O7?X FUNCTIONALIZING YBCO IN 2D: FILMS AND COATINGS THIN FILMS THICK COATINGS BY THERMAL SPRAYING YBCO IN 3D MANUFACTURING OF WIRES MANUFACTURING OF DISCS, RINGS AND PARALLELEPIPEDS 5 7 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF YBA2CU3O7?X SUPERCONDUCTING CABLES FAULT CURRENT LIMITER MAGNETIC LEVITATION DEVICES HIGH-POWER SUPERCONDUCTING SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS MAGNETIC ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS SUPERCONDUCTING TRANSFORMERS YBCO SUPERCONDUCTORS FOR MAGNETS IN TOKAMAK DEVICES OTHER APPLICATIONS EXTRACTION, PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF TITANIA 6 1 INTRODUCTION 6 2 WORLD RESERVES AND MINING INDUSTRY 6 3 STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TITANIA ANATASE RUTILE BROOKITE TIOX PHASES STRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION OF ANATASE TO RUTILE 6 4 PROPERTIES OF TITANIUM DIOXIDE GENERAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES GENERAL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF TIO2 PHASES DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES VS MICROSTRUCTURE OF CERAMICS DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF TIO2 FILMS TIO2 SINTERING TIO2 COATING PROCESSING METHODS 6 4 10 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF THIN FILMS 6 4 11 CATALYTIC PROPERTIES 6 5 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF TITANIA TITANIA PIGMENT INDUSTRIAL USES OF TIO2 PIGMENTS VITREOUS ENAMELS ON STEEL AND ALUMINUM PAINTS PAPER TEXTILES PHOTOCATALYSTS 6 6 FUTURE PERSPECTIVES PIGMENTS PHOTOCATALYSIS SOLAR ENERGY TIO2 NANOTUBES SYNTHESIS, PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS OF HYDROXYAPATITE 7 1 INTRODUCTION 7 2 PHASE DIAGRAM 7 3 METHODS OF CA10(PO4)6(OH)2 POWDER MANUFACTURING SOLID-STATE SYNTHESIS WET-ROUTE METHODS WET PRECIPITATION METHOD SOL–GEL METHOD HA SYNTHESIS BY ATOMIZATION POWDER SYNTHESIS USING NATURAL PRECURSORS SYNTHESIS OF NANOPOWDERS COMPOSITE POWDER SYNTHESIS THERMODYNAMIC AND THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HA MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF HA SINGLE CRYSTALS COATINGS 3D OBJECTS ELECTRIC PROPERTIES BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES 7 5 METHODS OF CA10(PO4)6(OH)2 FUNCTIONALIZING HA IN 2D: FILMS AND COATINGS PHYSICAL METHODS OF FILM AND COATINGS DEPOSITION CHEMICAL METHODS OF FILM AND COATING DEPOSITION HA IN 3D CONVENTIONAL SINTERING ACTIVATED SINTERING 7 6 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF HA MEDICAL APPLICATIONS HIP PROSTHESES KNEE PROSTHESES POSSIBLE FUTURE APPLICATIONS CATALYSIS BIOSENSORS OTHER POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS MECHANICAL APPLICATIONS OF OXIDES THE OXIDES ARE CHARACTERIZED BY EXCELLENT HARDNESS AND TOUGHNESS, ASSOCIATED WITH REL- ATIVELY LOW DENSITY THEY DO NOT DEFORM PLASTICALLY AND ARE FRAGILE THE APPLICATIONS OF ADVANCED CERAMICS IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, INCLUDING IN THE AEROSPACE, AUTOMOTIVE AND DEFENSE INDUSTRIES ARE COLLECTED IN TABLE 1 1 THE SECTORS THAT ARE DEVELOPING STRONGLY INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY OF OXIDES FOR EMERGING APPLICATIONS DEFENCE AUTOMOTIVE MECHANICAL REFRACTORINESS INSOLUTION HEAT COLLECTION THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AEROSPACE NUCLEAR REDIACTION RESISTENCE HIGH-TEMPERATURE STRENGTH THERMAL OIL INDUSTRY ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION LOW DENSITY HIGH-TEMPERATURE STRENGTH HIGH PERFORMANCE/ WEIGHT RATE HIGH STRENGTH WEAR RESISTANCE LOW THERMAL EXPANSION LUBRICATION OPTICAL ELECTRICAL MAGNETIC RAW MATERIALS FIBERS MATRICES DESIGN TECHNOLOGY MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY PROCESS CONTROL BASIC SCIENCE RESEARCH ELECTRICAL INSULATION ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY SEMICONDUCTIVITY PIEZOELECTRIC MAGNETIC DIELECTRIC BIOLOGICAL, CHEMICAL OPTICAL CONDENSING FLUORESCENCE TRANSLUCENCE OPTICAL CONDUCTIVITY BIOLOGICAL COMPATIBILITY CATALYSIS ADSORPTION CORROSION RESISTANCE LOW OBSERVABLE HIGH PERFORMANCE/ WEIGHT RATE FIGURE 1 1 ADVANCED CERAMICS APPLICATION TREE (AFTER Y LIANG AND S P DUTTA [1 5], REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION OF ELSEVIER) ARE LISTED BY OKADA [1 6], WHO ESTIMATED THE VOLUMES OF SHIPMENT OF STRUCTURAL CERAMICS IN JAPAN IN 2005 AS FOLLOWS: AUTOMOBILE PARTS €184 MLN (COMPARED WITH €168 MLN IN 2004) MECHANICAL ENGINEERING1 PARTS €104 MLN (COMPARED WITH €101 MLN IN 2004) PRECISION MECHANICAL PARTS €12 MLN (COMPARED WITH €11 MLN IN 2004) ALUMINA AND ZIRCONIA ARE TWO OF THE MAIN OXIDES USED FOR MECHANICAL APPLICATIONS 1 NOTED AS GENERAL MECHANICAL PARTS BY OKADA THE CHEMISTRY OF COMMERCE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF OXIDES ZIRCONIA HAS HIGH FRACTURE TOUGHNESS, KIC, WHICH RESULTS FROM THE MARTENSITIC TRANSFOR- MATION FROM TETRAGONAL TO MONOCLINIC PHASE ASSOCIATED WITH AN INCREASE OF THE VOLUME AND RESULTS IN CLOSURE OF THE FORMING CRACKS THE MAIN ZIRCONIA SYSTEMS USED IN THE INDUSTRY IS AN ALLOY WITH YTTRIUM (FROM 2–8 MOL %) ZIRCONIA IS USED IN THE OIL AND APPLICATION OF OXIDES IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING CERAMICS ARE ALSO VERY USEFUL IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING THE APPLICATIONS ARE MAINLY RELATED TO PASSIVE ELEMENTS [1 11]: CONNECTORS ELEMENTS FOR ENCAPSULATION MULTILAYER CAPACITORS RESISTORS DI?ERENT SENSORS THE CHEMISTRY OF COMMERCE TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF OXIDES GAS SENSORS, INCLUDING OXYGEN SENSORS SUPERCONDUCTOR YBCO ELECTRICITY TRANSPORT, ELECTROMAGNETS [1 11–1 13] REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION OF ELSEVIER