THE ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER ONE MATTER AND ITS PARTICULATE NATURE 1 CHAPTER TWO ATOMS AND MOLECULES 38 CHAPTER THREE CHEMICAL BONDING 63 CHAPTER FOUR GASES 79 CHAPTER FIVE CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 122 CHAPTER SIX ACIDS AND BASES 147 CHAPTER SEVEN CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS 165 CHAPTER EIGHT OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTIONS 175 CHAPTER NINE CHEMICAL KINETICS 190 CHAPTER TEN PHASE EQUILIBRIA 223 CHAPTER ELEVEN TRANSPORT AND THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTROLYTIC SOLUTION 264 CHAPTER TWELVE THERMOCHEMISTRY 290 CHAPTER THIRTEEN CHROMATOGRAPHY 310 CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE MATTER AND ITS PARTICULATE NATURE MATTER IS DEFINED AS THAT WHICH HAS MASS AND OCCUPIES SPACE THIS DEFINITION SEEMS SIMPLE ENOUGH YET THERE ARE PROFOUND ISSUES WHICH SURROUND IT FOR EXAMPLE THERE IS CURRENTLY NO GENERALLY ACCEPTED SCIENTIFIC THEORY FOR WHY MASS EXISTS IT CAN BE DEFINED MASS CHARACTERIZES AN OBJECT S RESISTANCE TO A CHANGE IN ITS MOTION BUT WHY IT EXISTS CANNOT YET BE DEMONSTRATED MASS JUST IS IT JUST EXISTS THE MASS IS THE AMOUNT OF MATTER IN AN OBJECT WHICH IS NOT THE SAME THING AS ITS WEIGHT THE WEIGHT IS A MEASURE OF THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE EXERTED ON AN OBJECT AS LONG AS THE GRAVITY IS UNIFORM EARTH S SURFACE THE WEIGHT DOES NOT CHANGE HENCE WE CAN FREELY USE THE WORD MASS OR WEIGHT IT DOES NOT MAKE ANY DIFFERENCE HOWEVER IF THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCES ARE NOT THE SAME EARTH VS MOON THE WEIGHT DIFFERS FROM THE MASS FOR EXAMPLE THE SAME ASTRONAUT SAME MASS WEIGHS DIFFERENTLY ON EARTH AND ON MOON AS WE LOOK INTO IT MORE DEFINITIONS START TO BECOME CIRCULAR AS IN THE DEFINITION OF SPACE SPACE IS THAT WHICH IS OCCUPIED BY MATTER SO ANY DEFINITION OF SPACE EXISTS ONLY IF THERE IS MATTER TAKE THE MATTER AWAY AND SPACE CEASES TO EXIST OF COURSE SAYING TAKE THE MATTER AWAY IS VERY EASY TO SAY IT IS QUITE ANOTHER THING TO SPECIFY WHAT IS MEANT BY IT THE ENTIRE UNIVERSE IS MADE OF TWO THINGS MATTER AND ENERGY ALL LIVING AND NON LIVING THINGS ARE MADE UP OF MATTER ALL MATTER IS PARTICULATE IN NATURE THIS BASICALLY MEANS THAT BETWEEN SEPARATE BITS OF MATTER THERE ARE SPACES WHICH CONTAIN 1 NO MATTER IN SCIENCE IT IS CALLED THE ATOMIC NATURE OF MATTER IT IS GENERALLY AGREED THAT THE GREEK PHILOSOPHER LEUCIPPUS AND HIS STUDENT DEMOCRITUS WERE THE FIRST TO PROPOSE THIS IDEA ABOUT 440 B C THIS ATOMIC THEORY TO USE A MODERN PHRASE WAS OPPOSED BY ARISTOTLE 100 YEARS LATER WHO TAUGHT THAT ALL SPACE IS FILLED WITH MATTER THAT THERE ARE NO EMPTY SPACES ARISTOTLE S IDEAS WERE ACCEPTED AS CORRECT BY ALMOST ALL EDUCATED PEOPLE UNTIL THE EARLY 1800 S WHEN ATOMIC IDEAS BEGAN TO BE MORE GENERALLY ACCEPTED AS CORRECT TODAY WE KNOW THAT THERE ARE MANY DIFFERENT PARTICLES WHICH MAKE UP MATTER SOME ARE LONG LASTING SUCH AS THE PROTON OTHERS ARE VERY VERY SHORT LIVED SUCH AS THE TOP QUARK THE PRIMARY PARTICLE IN CHEMISTRY IS THE ATOM HOWEVER YOU PROBABLY KNOW THAT THERE IS A SUBSTRUCTURE TO AN ATOM THAT IT IS MADE OF PROTONS NEUTRONS AND ELECTRONS YOU MAY ALSO KNOW THAT PROTONS AND NEUTRONS ARE EACH MADE OF THREE QUARKS THERE ARE MANY OTHER PARTICLES BEYOND THE PROTON AND NEUTRON SOME CONTAINING TWO QUARKS AND SOME CONTAINING THREE THERE ARE TWO OTHER CATEGORIES OF PARTICLES WHICH APPEAR TO NOT BE MADE OF QUARKS ELECTRONS AND NEUTRINOS AS FAR AS SCIENCE IS CURRENTLY ABLE TO TELL THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF PARTICLES WITH NO SUBSTRUCTURE THAT WE CAN DETECT QUARKS ELECTRONS AND NEUTRINOS IT MAY BE THAT SOMEDAY WE WILL LEARN THE ELECTRON FOR EXAMPLE IS MADE OF STILL SMALLER PIECES LIKE AN ATOM IS MADE OF PROTONS NEUTRONS AND ELECTRONS THERE IS ALSO A FAIRLY SOPHISTICATED CONCEPT CALLED VIRTUAL PARTICLES WHILE IT IS BASED ON SOME CONCEPTS YOU HAVE NOT YET LEARNED IT IS STILL FAIRLY EASY TO DESCRIBE IN A GENERAL WAY THERE IS ENERGY ALSO IN THE UNIVERSE WE ARE JUST IGNORING IT FOR THE TIME BEING IN THIS TUTORIAL SOME OF THE ENERGY CAN SPONTANEOUSLY MERGE TO FORM A PARTICLE OF MATTER EINSTEIN SHOWED THAT MATTER AND ENERGY CAN BE CONVERTED ONE INTO ANOTHER THESE VIRTUAL PARTICLES EXIST FOR VERY VERY SMALL AMOUNTS OF TIME SO SMALL THAT WE CANNOT DETECT THEM BEFORE THAT POP BACK INTO BEING THE ENERGY THEY WERE MADE FROM 2 THE ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY 1 SINCE THE UNIVERSE IS FLOODED WITH ENERGY THIS MEANS THAT IN EVERY SQUARE CENTIMETRE OF THE UNIVERSE ARE TRILLIONS AND TRILLIONS AND TRILLIONS OF VIRTUAL PARTICLES POPPING INTO EXISTENCE EVERY FRACTION OF A SECOND AND THEN GOING BACK TO ENERGY EMPTY SPACE IS ACTUALLY A BOILING CAULDRON OF PARTICLES EVEN THOUGH INDIVIDUAL PARTICLES CANNOT BE DETECTED THE EFFECT CAN IF YOU WANT TO LOOK INTO THIS FARTHER LOOK UP THE CASIMIR EFFECT AS WELL AS LEARN WHAT POLARIZABILITY OF THE VACUUM OR QUANTUM FLUCTUATION OF THE VACUUM MEANS IT MAY BE THAT ARISTOTLE WAS RIGHT ALL ALONG THE FUNDAMENTAL BUILDING BLOCK OF MATTER IS THE ATOM HOWEVER THE TERM ATOM JUST REFERS TO A BUILDING BLOCK OF MATTER IT DOESN T SPECIFY THE IDENTITY OF THE ATOM IT COULD BE AN ATOM OF CARBON OR AN ATOM OF HYDROGEN OR ANY OTHER KIND OF ATOM ANY ATOM IS COMPOSED OF A LITTLE NUCLEUS SURROUNDED BY A CLOUD OF ELECTRONS IN THE NUCLEUS THERE ARE PROTONS AND NEUTRONS THE ATOM IS THE BASIC BUILDING BLOCK FOR ALL MATTER IN THE UNIVERSE ATOMS ARE EXTREMELY SMALL AND ARE MADE UP OF A FEW EVEN SMALLER PARTICLES THE BASIC PARTICLES THAT MAKE UP AN ATOM ARE ELECTRONS PROTONS AND NEUTRONS ATOMS FIT TOGETHER WITH OTHER ATOMS TO MAKE UP MATTER IT TAKES A LOT OF ATOMS TO MAKE UP ANYTHING THERE ARE SO MANY ATOMS IN A SINGLE HUMAN BODY WE WON T EVEN TRY TO WRITE THE NUMBER HERE SUFFICE IT TO SAY THAT THE NUMBER IS TRILLIONS AND TRILLIONS AND THEN SOME MORE THERE ARE DIFFERENT KINDS OF ATOMS BASED ON THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS PROTONS AND NEUTRONS EACH ATOM CONTAINS EACH DIFFERENT KIND OF ATOM MAKES UP AN ELEMENT THERE ARE 92 NATURAL ELEMENTS AND UP TO 118 WHEN YOU COUNT IN MAN MADE ELEMENTS ATOMS LAST A LONG TIME IN MOST CASES FOREVER THEY CAN CHANGE AND UNDERGO CHEMICAL REACTIONS SHARING ELECTRONS WITH OTHER ATOMS BUT THE NUCLEUS IS VERY HARD TO SPLIT MEANING MOST ATOMS ARE AROUND FOR A LONG TIME 3 THE ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY 1