COLORANTS FOR NON-TEXTILE APPLICATIONS
CONTENTS PART ONE CONSUMER EXPECTATIONS AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK OF FOOD COLORANTS FOOD COLOR AND COLORING FOOD: QUALITY, DIFFERENTIATION AND REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE UNITED STATES 1 INTRODUCTION 2 COLORING PRINCIPLES USED FOR FOOD COLORING 3 COLORING FOOD WITH FOOD 4 FOOD COLORS: EU REGULATIONS 5 GUIDANCE NOTES 6 FOOD COLOR REGULATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES 7 CONSUMER EXPECTATIONS REFERENCES THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF FOOD COLORS 2 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF FOOD COLOR: SETTING SENSORY EXPECTATIONS 3 NAMES, BRANDS, AND COLORS 4 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF FOOD COLOR ON BEHAVIOR 5 MARKETING COLOR 6 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF COLOR 7 THE FUTURE OF COLOR IN FOOD 8 CONCLUSIONS PART TWO GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT PIGMENT STABILITY ANTHOCYANINS 1 STRUCTURAL DIVERSITY OF ANTHOCYANINS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE IN FOOD PLANTS 2 INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC FACTORS HAVING AN IMPACT ON COLOR EVOLUTION AND ANTHOCYANIN STABILITY 3 FACTORS AFFECTING ANTHOCYANIN STABILITY UPON PROCESSING AND STORAGE 4 FUTURE PERSPECTIVES BETALAINS 2 STABILITY RELATED TO STRUCTURE AND DEGRADATION PATHWAYS 3 FACTORS AFFECTING BETALAIN STABILITY 4 EFFECT OF PROCESSING ON BETALAIN STABILITY 5 EFFECT OF STORAGE CONDITIONS ON BETALAIN STABILITY 6 IMPROVING BETALAIN STABILITY IN THE PRODUCTION OF BETALAIN-BASED NATURAL COLORANTS 7 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF BETALAINS CAROTENOIDS 2 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CAROTENOIDS 3 EFFECTS OF FOOD PROCESSING ON THE STABILITY OF CAROTENOIDS 4 ANALYTICAL PERSPECTIVES 5 CONCLUSIONS CHLOROPHYLLS 2 STRUCTURE, LOCALIZATION, AND FUNCTION 3 BIOSYNTHESIS AND CATABOLISM 4 STRUCTURES PRESENT IN FOODS 5 BIOLOGICAL ACTIONS 6 ANALYSIS 7 CHLOROPHYLLS AS FOOD ADDITIVES 8 FUTURE TRENDS FURTHER READING PART THREE SPECI?C INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF NATURAL COLORANTS SECTION ONE APPLICATION NOTES COLORING AQUEOUS FOOD TYPES 2 GENERAL NOTE ON COLORING FOODS 3 AQUEOUS FOOD SYSTEMS CHALLENGES 4 EXAMPLES OF AQUEOUS FOOD SYSTEMS 5 SUMMARY COLORING OF LOW-MOISTURE AND GELATINIZED FOOD PRODUCTS 2 CONFECTIONERY PRODUCTS 3 AERATED CONFECTIONERY 4 HARD-BOILED CANDY 5 DRAGEES 6 FRUIT PREPARATIONS, JAMS, AND FRUIT-BASED SPREADS 7 CONCLUSIONS ICE CREAM 1 DE?NITION AND CLASSI?CATION OF FROZEN DESSERTS 2 LEGISLATION 3 ICE CREAM 4 SORBETS 5 PACKAGING AND LIGHT STABILITY 6 DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE 10 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENT CURING APPROACHES AND NATURAL COLORANTS IN MEAT PRODUCTS 2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS AND HISTORY 3 STABILIZATION OF MEAT COLOR BY COMPLEXING MYOGLOBIN 4 RED COLORANTS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN: CARMINE/COCHENILLE 5 APPLICATIONS OF PLANT-DERIVED COLORANTS 6 APPLICATIONS OF MICROBIAL PIGMENTS 7 TOXICOLOGY, FOOD SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS, AND RISK ASSESSMENT 8 REGULATORY ASPECTS REGARDING NATURAL CURING AGENTS AND MEAT COLORANTS 9 CONCLUSIONS 11 COLORATION OF CEREAL-BASED PRODUCTS 1 DE?NITION AND CLASSI?CATION OF CEREAL-BASED PRODUCTS 3 EXTRUDED READY-TO-EAT CEREALS 4 FINE BAKERY SECTION TWO REVIEWS 12 IMPROVEMENT AND STABILIZATION OF RED WINE COLOR 2 CHEMISTRY OF RED WINE PIGMENTS 3 MODULATION OF ANTHOCYANIN COMPOSITION AND CONCENTRATION IN RED WINES 4 ENOLOGICAL PRACTICES TO IMPROVE AND STABILIZE RED WINE COLOR 5 CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 13 FEED ADDITIVES FOR IN?UENCING THE COLOR OF FISH AND CRUSTACEANS 2 SOURCES OF COLORING ADDITIVES 3 LEGAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FISH FEED 4 ROUTINE ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR MEASURING COLOR IN FISH FLESH 5 ANALYTICAL METHODS BASED ON DIFFERENCES IN COLOR 6 OUTLOOK 14 FEED ADDITIVES FOR IN?UENCING CHICKEN MEAT AND EGG YOLK COLOR 1 DE?NITION AND MEASUREMENT OF COLOR 2 CONSUMER PREFERENCES OF COLOR 3 SOURCES FOR PIGMENTATION AND LEGAL APPROVAL 4 COLORING EF?CIENCY 5 METABOLISM OF CAROTENOIDS IN POULTRY 6 DEPOSITION OF CAROTENOIDS IN EGG YOLK AND TISSUES 7 FACTORS AFFECTING YOLK AND TISSUE PIGMENTATION 8 HUMAN INTAKE ESTIMATES PART FOUR RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 15 UNDERUTILIZED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES AS POTENTIAL NOVEL PIGMENT SOURCES 2 PRESENT REGULATORY HURDLES AND INCENTIVES FOR APPLICATION OF NOVEL PIGMENT SOURCES 3 POTENTIAL NOVEL NATURAL PIGMENT SOURCES 4 CONCLUSION 16 CURRENT AND POTENTIAL NATURAL PIGMENTS FROM MICROORGANISMS (BACTERIA, YEASTS, FUNGI, MICROALGAE) 2 CAROTENOIDS 3 AZAPHILONES 4 ANTHRAQUINONES 5 PHYCOBILIPROTEINS 6 CONCLUSION 17 NATURAL SOLUTIONS FOR BLUE COLORS IN FOOD 2 SPIRULINA 3 ANTHOCYANINS 4 GENIPIN 5 FURTHER POTENTIAL SOURCES FOR NATURAL BLUE COLORANTS 18 THE “CARMINE PROBLEM” AND POTENTIAL ALTERNATIVES 2 CARMINE—CHEMISTRY AND SOURCES 3 PRODUCTION OF COCHINEAL 4 PROBLEMS 5 POTENTIAL SUBSTITUTES AND FUTURE TRENDS 19 IMPROVING COLOR SOURCES BY PLANT BREEDING AND CULTIVATION 1 INTRODUCTION TO PLANT BREEDING 2 TOMATO BREEDING FOR LYCOPENE CONTENT 3 BEETROOT BREEDING FOR BETALAIN CONTENT 4 CARROT BREEDING FOR ANTHOCYANIN CONTENT 5 PERSPECTIVES 20 RECENT INSIGHTS INTO HEALTH BENE?TS OF CAROTENOIDS 2 MECHANISMS OF ACTION 3 CAROTENOIDS AND DISEASES 4 CONCLUSIONS