OILS AND GASES FROM COAL
CONTENTS SECTION I FEEDSTOCK: AVAILABILITY AND EVALUATION CHAPTER CRUDE OIL, HEAVY OIL, AND TAR SAND BITUMEN INTRODUCTION NATIVE MATERIALS PETROLEUM CRUDE OIL FROM TIGHT FORMATIONS OPPORTUNITY CRUDES HIGH-ACID CRUDE OIL FOAMY OIL HEAVY OIL TAR SAND BITUMEN KEROGEN BIOMASS NATURAL GAS PETROLEUM-RELATED GAS GAS HYDRATES COALBED METHANE BIOGENIC GAS MANUFACTURED MATERIALS RESIDUUM ASPHALT SYNTHETIC CRUDE OIL SHALE OIL DERIVED MATERIALS ASPHALTENE CONSTITUENTS NONASPHALTENE CONSTITUENTS RESOURCES AND RESERVES CONVENTIONAL CRUDE OIL AND HEAVY OIL REFERENCES CHAPTER FEEDSTOCK EVALUATION PETROLEUM ASSAY PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ACID NUMBER POTENTIOMETRIC TITRATION COLOR-INDICATING TITRATION ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY METAL CONTENT SURFACE AND INTERFACIAL TENSION VISCOSITY THERMAL PROPERTIES ANILINE POINT CARBON RESIDUE CRITICAL PROPERTIES ENTHALPY HEAT OF COMBUSTION LATENT HEAT LIQUEFACTION AND SOLIDIFICATION PRESSURE–VOLUME–TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIPS SPECIFIC HEAT 2 4 10 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY 2 4 11 VOLATILITY ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES CONDUCTIVITY DIELECTRIC CONSTANT DIELECTRIC STRENGTH DIELECTRIC LOSS AND POWER FACTORS STATIC ELECTRIFICATION OPTICAL PROPERTIES OPTICAL ACTIVITY REFRACTIVE INDEX SPECTROSCOPIC PROPERTIES INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY MASS SPECTROMETRY NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY CHROMATOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES ADSORPTION CHROMATOGRAPHY GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY GEL PERMEATION CHROMATOGRAPHY HIGH-PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY ION-EXCHANGE CHROMATOGRAPHY SIMULATED DISTILLATION SUPERCRITICAL FLUID CHROMATOGRAPHY MOLECULAR WEIGHT 2 10 USE OF THE DATA FEEDSTOCK COMPOSITION ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION CHEMICAL COMPOSITION HYDROCARBON CONSTITUENTS PARAFFIN HYDROCARBONS CYCLOPARAFFIN HYDROCARBONS AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS NONHYDROCARBON CONSTITUENTS SULFUR COMPOUNDS NITROGEN COMPOUNDS OXYGEN COMPOUNDS METALLIC CONSTITUENTS PORPHYRINS CHEMICAL COMPOSITION BY DISTILLATION GASES AND NAPHTHA MIDDLE DISTILLATES VACUUM RESIDUA FRACTIONAL COMPOSITION SOLVENT METHODS ADSORPTION METHODS CHEMICAL METHODS USE OF THE DATA INTRODUCTION TO REFINING PROCESSES DEWATERING AND DESALTING DISTILLATION DISTILLATION AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE DISTILLATION UNDER REDUCED PRESSURE AZEOTROPIC AND EXTRACTIVE DISTILLATION THERMAL PROCESSES THERMAL CRACKING VISBREAKING COKING DELAYED COKING FLUID COKING CATALYTIC PROCESSES CATALYTIC CRACKING CATALYSTS HYDROPROCESSES HYDROTREATING HYDROFINING HYDROCRACKING REFORMING PROCESSES THERMAL REFORMING CATALYTIC REFORMING ISOMERIZATION PROCESSES PROCESSES ALKYLATION PROCESSES 4 10 POLYMERIZATION PROCESSES 4 10 1 PROCESSES 4 10 2 CATALYSTS 4 11 SOLVENT PROCESSES 4 11 1 DEASPHALTING 4 11 2 DEWAXING 4 12 PETROLEUM PRODUCTS 4 13 PETROCHEMICALS 4 14 ANCILLARY OPERATIONS REFINING CHEMISTRY CRACKING CHEMISTRY GENERAL CHEMISTRY ASPHALTENE CHEMISTRY BIOMASS CHEMISTRY DEHYDROGENATION DEHYDROCYCLIZATION HYDROGENATION SOLVENT DEASPHALTING EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE EFFECTS OF THE SOLVENT-TO-OIL RATIO EFFECTS OF SOLVENT TYPES ISOMERIZATION ALKYLATION POLYMERIZATION PROCESS CHEMISTRY THERMAL CHEMISTRY HYDROCONVERSION CHEMISTRY CHEMISTRY IN THE REFINERY HYDROPROCESSING REFINERY REACTORS REACTOR TYPES BATCH REACTORS HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS SEMIBATCH REACTORS CONTINUOUS REACTORS PLUG FLOW REACTORS FLASH REACTORS SLURRY REACTORS BED TYPES PACKED BEDS FLUIDIZED-BED REACTORS DOWNFLOW FIXED-BED REACTORS UPFLOW EXPANDED-BED REACTORS EBULLATING BED REACTORS DEMETALLIZATION REACTORS PROCESS PARAMETERS PARTIAL PRESSURE SPACE VELOCITY TEMPERATURE CATALYST LIFE FEEDSTOCK SECTION II REFINING CHAPTER PRETREATMENT AND DISTILLATION DISTILLATION AT A REDUCED PRESSURE DISTILLATION TOWERS TRAY TOWERS PACKED TOWERS OTHER DISTILLATION PROCESSES STRIPPING RERUNNING STABILIZATION SUPERFRACTIONATION AZEOTROPIC DISTILLATION EXTRACTIVE DISTILLATION OPTIONS FOR HEAVY FEEDSTOCKS DISTILLATION OPERATIONS CORROSION THERMAL CRACKING PROCESSES FLEXICOKING OTHER PROCESSES AQUACONVERSION PROCESS ASPHALT COKING TECHNOLOGY (ASCOT) PROCESS CHERRY-P PROCESS CONTINUOUS COKING PROCESS DECARBONIZING PROCESS ET-II PROCESS EUREKA PROCESS FTC PROCESS HSC PROCESS 8 6 10 MIXED-PHASE CRACKING PROCESS 8 6 11 SELECTIVE CRACKING PROCESS 8 6 12 SHELL THERMAL CRACKING PROCESS 8 6 13 TERVAHL-T PROCESS CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESSES FIXED-BED PROCESSES MOVING-BED PROCESSES FLUID-BED PROCESSES COKE FORMATION AND ADDITIVES COKE FORMATION ADDITIVES PROCESS VARIABLES FEEDSTOCK QUALITY FEEDSTOCK PREHEATING FEEDSTOCK PRESSURE FEEDSTOCK CONVERSION REACTOR TEMPERATURE RECYCLE RATE CATALYST ACTIVITY CATALYST/OIL RATIO 9 6 10 REGENERATOR TEMPERATURE 9 6 11 REGENERATOR AIR RATE 9 6 12 PROCESS DESIGN 9 6 12 1 MODIFICATIONS FOR EXISTING UNITS 9 6 12 2 COMMERCIAL TECHNOLOGY CHANGES 9 6 12 3 NEW DIRECTIONS CATALYST TYPES CATALYST MANUFACTURE CATALYST SELECTIVITY CATALYST DEACTIVATION CATALYST STRIPPING CATALYST TREATMENT DEMET MET-X RECENT ADVANCES MATRIX, BINDER, AND ZEOLITE METAL TRAPS LOW RARE EARTHS CATALYSTS FOR OLEFIN PRODUCTION CATALYSTS FOR JET AND DIESEL PRODUCTION NEW DIRECTIONS ASPHALT RESIDUAL TREATING (ART) PROCESS RESIDUE FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS HEAVY OIL TREATING PROCESS R2R PROCESS REDUCED CRUDE OIL CONVERSION PROCESS SHELL FCC PROCESS S&W FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS OTHER OPTIONS CHAPTER 10 HYDROTREATING PROCESSES 10 1 INTRODUCTION 10 1 1 BENZENE CYCLOHEXANE 10 2 HYDRODESULFURIZATION 10 2 1 PROCESS CONFIGURATION 10 2 2 DOWNFLOW FIXED-BED REACTORS 10 2 3 UPFLOW EXPANDED-BED REACTORS 10 2 4 DEMETALLIZATION REACTORS 10 2 5 CATALYSTS 10 3 DISTILLATE HYDRODESULFURIZATION 10 3 1 PROCESSES 10 3 2 PROCESS PARAMETERS 10 3 2 1 HYDROGEN PARTIAL PRESSURE 10 3 2 2 SPACE VELOCITY 10 3 2 3 REACTION TEMPERATURE 10 3 2 4 CATALYST LIFE 10 3 2 5 FEEDSTOCK EFFECTS 10 4 HEAVY FEEDSTOCK HYDRODESULFURIZATION 10 4 1 PROCESSES 10 4 1 1 RESID DESULFURIZATION AND VACUUM RESID DESULFURIZATION PROCESS 10 4 1 2 RESIDFINING PROCESS 10 4 1 3 OTHER OPTIONS 10 4 2 PROCESS PARAMETERS 10 4 2 1 CATALYST TYPES 10 4 2 2 METALS ACCUMULATION 10 4 2 3 CATALYST ACTIVITY 10 4 2 4 TEMPERATURE AND SPACE VELOCITY 10 4 2 5 FEEDSTOCK EFFECTS 10 5 OTHER OPTIONS CATALYST TECHNOLOGY GASOLINE AND DIESEL FUEL POLISHING BIODESULFURIZATION BIO-FEEDSTOCKS CHAPTER 11 HYDROCRACKING 11 1 INTRODUCTION 11 2 PROCESSES AND PROCESS DESIGN PROCESS DESIGN FEEDSTOCKS AND HYDROGEN REQUIREMENTS DESIGN IMPROVEMENTS 11 3 CATALYSTS 11 4 OPTIONS FOR HEAVY FEEDSTOCKS AQUACONVERSION ASPHALTENIC BOTTOM CRACKING PROCESS CANMET PROCESS CHEVRON RDS ISOMAX AND VRDS PROCESS ENI SLURRY-PHASE TECHNOLOGY GULF RESID HYDRODESULFURIZATION PROCESS H-G HYDROCRACKING PROCESS H-OIL PROCESS HYCAR PROCESS 11 4 10 HYVAHL-F PROCESS 11 4 11 IFP HYDROCRACKING PROCESS 11 4 12 ISOCRACKING PROCESS 11 4 13 LC-FINING PROCESS 11 4 14 MAKFINING PROCESS 11 4 15 MICROCAT-RC PROCESS 11 4 16 MILD HYDROCRACKING PROCESS 11 4 17 MRH PROCESS 11 4 18 RCD UNIBON PROCESS 11 4 19 RESIDFINING PROCESS 11 4 20 RESIDUE HYDROCONVERSION PROCESS 11 4 21 SHELL RESIDUAL OIL PROCESS 11 4 22 TERVAHL-H PROCESS 11 4 23 UNICRACKING PROCESS 11 4 24 UNIFLEX PROCESS 11 4 25 VEBA COMBI CRACKING PROCESS 11 5 OTHER OPTIONS CHAPTER 12 SOLVENT PROCESSES 12 1 INTRODUCTION 12 2 DEASPHALTING PROCESSES DEASPHALTING PROCESS 12 2 2 DEEP SOLVENT DEASPHALTING PROCESS 12 2 3 DEMEX PROCESS 12 2 4 MDS PROCESS 12 2 5 RESIDUUM OIL SUPERCRITICAL EXTRACTION PROCESS 12 2 6 SOLVAHL PROCESS 12 2 7 LUBE DEASPHALTING 12 3 DEWAXING PROCESSES 12 3 1 COLD PRESS PROCESS 12 3 2 SOLVENT DEWAXING PROCESS 12 3 3 UREA DEWAXING PROCESS 12 3 4 CENTRIFUGE DEWAXING PROCESS 12 3 5 CATALYTIC DEWAXING PROCESS 12 3 6 DEWAXING HEAVY FEEDSTOCKS CHAPTER 13 PRODUCT IMPROVEMENT 13 1 INTRODUCTION 13 2 REFORMING 13 2 1 THERMAL REFORMING 13 2 2 CATALYTIC REFORMING 13 2 2 1 FIXED-BED PROCESSES 13 2 2 2 MOVING-BED PROCESSES 13 2 3 FLUID-BED PROCESSES 13 3 ISOMERIZATION 13 3 1 BUTAMER PROCESS 13 3 2 BUTOMERATE PROCESS 13 3 3 HYSOMER PROCESS 13 3 4 ISO-KEL PROCESS 13 3 5 ISOMATE PROCESS 13 3 6 ISOMERATE PROCESS 13 3 7 PENEX PROCESS 13 3 8 PENTAFINING PROCESS 13 4 HYDROISOMERIZATION 13 5 ALKYLATION 13 5 1 SULFURIC ACID ALKYLATION 13 5 2 HYDROGEN FLUORIDE ALKYLATION 13 6 POLYMERIZATION 13 6 1 THERMAL POLYMERIZATION 13 6 2 SOLID PHOSPHORIC ACID POLYMERIZATION 13 6 3 BULK ACID POLYMERIZATION 13 7 CATALYSTS 13 7 1 REFORMING PROCESSES 13 7 2 ISOMERIZATION PROCESSES 13 7 3 ALKYLATION PROCESSES 13 7 4 POLYMERIZATION PROCESSES 13 8 TREATING PROCESSES 13 8 1 CAUSTIC PROCESSES 13 8 1 1 DUALAYER DISTILLATE PROCESS 13 8 1 2 DUALAYER GASOLINE PROCESS 13 8 1 3 ELECTROLYTIC MERCAPTAN PROCESS 13 8 1 4 FERROCYANIDE PROCESS 13 8 1 5 LYE TREATMENT 13 8 1 6 MERCAPSOL PROCESS 13 8 1 7 POLYSULFIDE TREATMENT 13 8 1 8 SODASOL PROCESS 13 8 1 9 SOLUTIZER PROCESS 13 8 1 10 STEAM-REGENERATIVE CAUSTIC TREATMENT 13 8 1 11 UNISOL PROCESS 13 8 2 ACID PROCESSES 13 8 2 1 NALFINING PROCESS 13 8 2 2 SULFURIC ACID TREATMENT 13 8 3 CLAY PROCESSES 13 8 3 1 ALKYLATION EFFLUENT TREATMENT 13 8 3 2 AROSORB PROCESS 13 8 3 3 BAUXITE TREATMENT 13 8 3 4 CONTINUOUS CONTACT FILTRATION PROCESS 13 8 3 5 CYCLIC ADSORPTION PROCESS 13 8 3 6 GRAY CLAY TREATMENT 13 8 3 7 PERCOLATION FILTRATION PROCESS 13 8 3 8 THERMOFOR CONTINUOUS PERCOLATION PROCESS 13 8 4 OXIDATIVE PROCESSES 13 8 4 1 BENDER PROCESS 13 8 4 2 COPPER SWEETENING PROCESS 13 8 4 3 DOCTOR PROCESS 13 8 4 4 HYPOCHLORITE SWEETENING PROCESS 13 8 4 5 INHIBITOR SWEETENING PROCESS 13 8 4 6 MEROX PROCESS 13 8 5 SOLVENT PROCESSES CHAPTER 14 GASIFICATION PROCESSES 14 1 INTRODUCTION 14 2 GASIFICATION CHEMISTRY 14 2 1 GENERAL ASPECTS 14 2 2 PRETREATMENT 14 2 3 REACTIONS 14 2 3 1 PRIMARY GASIFICATION 14 2 3 2 SECONDARY GASIFICATION 14 2 3 3 WATER-GAS SHIFT REACTION 14 2 3 4 CARBON DIOXIDE GASIFICATION 14 2 3 5 HYDROGASIFICATION 14 2 3 6 METHANATION 14 3 PROCESSES AND FEEDSTOCKS 14 3 1 GASIFIERS 14 3 2 FISCHER–TROPSCH SYNTHESIS 14 3 3 FEEDSTOCKS 14 3 3 1 RESIDUA 14 3 3 2 PETROLEUM COKE 14 3 3 3 ASPHALT, TAR, AND PITCH 14 3 3 4 TAR SAND BITUMEN 14 3 3 5 COAL 14 3 3 6 BIOMASS 14 3 3 7 SOLID WASTE 14 3 3 8 BLACK LIQUOR 14 4 GASIFICATION IN A REFINERY 14 4 1 GASIFICATION OF RESIDUA AND RESIDUA—COAL MIXTURES 14 4 2 COGASIFICATION OF RESIDUA WITH BIOMASS 14 4 3 COGASIFICATION OF RESIDUA WITH WASTE 14 5 SYNTHETIC FUEL PRODUCTION 14 5 1 GASEOUS PRODUCTS 14 5 1 1 SYNTHESIS GAS 14 5 1 2 LOW-BTU GAS 14 5 1 3 MEDIUM-BTU GAS 14 5 1 4 HIGH-HEAT-CONTENT (HIGH-BTU) GAS 14 5 2 LIQUID PRODUCTS 14 5 3 SOLID PRODUCTS 14 6 THE FUTURE CHAPTER 15 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION 15 1 INTRODUCTION 15 2 PROCESSES REQUIRING HYDROGEN 15 2 1 HYDROTREATING 15 2 2 HYDROCRACKING 15 3 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION 15 3 1 FEEDSTOCKS 15 3 2 CHEMISTRY 15 3 3 CATALYSTS 15 3 3 1 REFORMING CATALYSTS 15 3 3 2 SHIFT CONVERSION CATALYSTS 15 3 3 3 METHANATION CATALYSTS 15 4 HYDROGEN PURIFICATION 15 4 1 WET SCRUBBING 15 4 2 PRESSURE SWING ADSORPTION UNITS 15 4 3 MEMBRANE SYSTEMS 15 4 4 CRYOGENIC SEPARATION 15 5 HYDROGEN MANAGEMENT 15 6 COMMERCIAL PROCESSES 15 6 1 HEAVY RESIDUE GASIFICATION AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER GENERATION 15 6 2 HYBRID GASIFICATION PROCESS 15 6 3 HYDROCARBON GASIFICATION 15 6 4 HYPRO PROCESS 15 6 5 PYROLYSIS PROCESSES 15 6 6 SHELL GASIFICATION PROCESS 15 6 7 STEAM–METHANE REFORMING 15 6 8 STEAM–NAPHTHA REFORMING 15 6 9 SYNTHESIS GAS GENERATION 15 6 10 TEXACO GASIFICATION PROCESS 15 6 11 RECOVERY FROM PROCESS GAS 15 7 REFINING HEAVY FEEDSTOCKS CHAPTER 16 GAS CLEANING 16 1 INTRODUCTION 16 2 GAS STREAMS 16 2 1 GAS STREAMS FROM CRUDE OIL 16 2 2 GAS STREAMS FROM NATURAL GAS 16 3 ENRICHMENT 16 4 WATER REMOVAL 16 4 1 ABSORPTION 16 4 2 SOLID ADSORBENTS 16 4 3 MEMBRANES 16 5 LIQUID REMOVAL 16 5 1 EXTRACTION 16 5 2 ABSORPTION 16 5 3 FRACTIONATION OF NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS 16 6 NITROGEN REMOVAL 16 7 ACID GAS REMOVAL 16 8 FRACTIONATION 16 9 CLAUS PROCESS CHAPTER 17 REFINING IN THE FUTURE 17 1 INTRODUCTION 17 2 HISTORY 17 3 REFINERY CONFIGURATIONS 17 3 1 PETROLEUM REFINERY 17 3 2 BIOREFINERY 17 3 3 COAL LIQUIDS REFINERY 17 3 4 SHALE OIL REFINERY 17 3 5 GASIFICATION REFINERY 17 4 THE FUTURE REFINERY SECTION I FEEDSTOCK: AVAILABILITY AND EVALUATION