PRODUCER GAS
CONTENTS PART 1: PRODUCTION 1 ENERGY SOURCES AND ENERGY SUPPLY 1 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 TYPICAL ENERGY SOURCES 1 2 1 NATURAL GAS AND NATURAL GAS HYDRATES 1 2 2 THE CRUDE OIL FAMILY 1 2 3 EXTRA HEAVY CRUDE OIL AND TAR SAND BITUMEN 1 3 OTHER ENERGY SOURCES 1 3 1 COAL 1 3 2 OIL SHALE 1 3 3 BIOMASS 1 3 4 SOLID WASTE 1 4 ENERGY SUPPLY 1 4 1 ECONOMIC FACTORS 1 4 2 GEOPOLITICAL FACTORS 1 4 3 PHYSICAL FACTORS 1 4 4 TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS 1 5 ENERGY INDEPENDENCE REFERENCES 2 PRODUCTION OF SYNTHESIS GAS 2 1 INTRODUCTION 2 2 SYNTHESIS GAS GENERATION 2 3 FEEDSTOCKS 2 3 1 NATURAL GAS 2 3 2 CRUDE OIL RESID, HEAVY CRUDE OIL, EXTRA HEAVY CRUDE OIL, AND TAR SAND BITUMEN 2 3 3 REFINERY COKE 2 3 4 COAL 2 3 5 BIOMASS 2 3 6 SOLID WASTE 2 3 7 BLACK LIQUOR 2 3 8 MIXED FEEDSTOCKS 2 3 8 1 BIOMASS AND COAL 2 3 8 2 BIOMASS AND MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE 2 4 INFLUENCE OF FEEDSTOCK QUALITY 2 5 GASIFICATION PROCESSES 2 5 1 FEEDSTOCK PRETREATMENT 2 5 2 FEEDSTOCK DEVOLATILIZATION 2 5 3 CHAR GASIFICATION 2 5 4 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 5 5 STAGE-BY-STAGE CHEMISTRY 2 5 5 1 PRIMARY GASIFICATION 2 5 5 2 SECONDARY GASIFICATION 2 5 5 3 WATER GAS SHIFT REACTION 2 5 5 4 CARBON DIOXIDE GASIFICATION 2 5 5 5 HYDROGASIFICATION 2 5 5 6 METHANATION 2 5 5 7 CATALYTIC GASIFICATION 2 5 6 PHYSICAL EFFECTS 2 6 PRODUCTS 2 6 1 GASEOUS PRODUCTS 2 6 1 1 LOW BTU GAS 2 6 1 2 MEDIUM BTU GAS 2 6 1 3 HIGH BTU GAS 2 6 1 4 SYNTHESIS GAS 2 6 2 LIQUID PRODUCTS 2 6 3 TAR 3 GASIFIER TYPES AND GASIFICATION CHEMISTRY 3 1 INTRODUCTION 3 2 GASIFIER TYPES 3 2 1 FIXED-BED GASIFIER 3 2 2 FLUID-BED GASIFIER 3 2 3 ENTRAINED-BED GASIFIER 3 2 4 MOLTEN SALT GASIFIER 3 2 5 PLASMA GASIFIER 3 2 6 OTHER TYPES 3 2 7 GASIFIER SELECTION 3 3 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 3 3 1 DEVOLATILIZATION 3 3 2 PRODUCTS 3 4 PROCESS OPTIONS 3 4 1 EFFECTS OF PROCESS PARAMETERS 3 4 2 EFFECT OF HEAT RELEASE 3 4 3 OTHER EFFECTS 4 GASIFICATION OF COAL 4 1 INTRODUCTION 4 2 COAL TYPES AND PROPERTIES 4 3 GAS PRODUCTS 4 3 1 COAL DEVOLATILIZATION 4 3 2 CHAR GASIFICATION 4 3 3 GASIFICATION CHEMISTRY 4 3 4 OTHER PROCESS OPTIONS 4 3 4 1 HYDROGASIFICATION 4 3 4 2 CATALYTIC GASIFICATION 4 3 4 3 PLASMA GASIFICATION 4 3 5 PROCESS OPTIMIZATION 4 4 PRODUCT QUALITY 4 4 1 LOW BTU GAS 4 4 2 MEDIUM BTU GAS 4 4 3 HIGH BTU GAS 4 4 4 METHANE 4 4 5 HYDROGEN 4 4 6 OTHER GASES 4 5 CHEMICALS PRODUCTION 4 5 1 COAL TAR CHEMICALS 4 5 2 FISCHER-TROPSCH CHEMICALS 4 5 2 1 FISCHER-TROPSCH CATALYSTS 4 5 2 2 PRODUCT DISTRIBUTION 4 6 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS 5 GASIFICATION OF HEAVY FEEDSTOCKS 5 1 INTRODUCTION 5 2 HEAVY FEEDSTOCKS 5 2 1 CRUDE OIL RESIDUA 5 2 2 HEAVY CRUDE OIL 5 2 3 EXTRA HEAVY CRUDE OIL 5 2 4 TAR SAND BITUMEN 5 2 5 OTHER FEEDSTOCKS 5 2 5 1 CRUDE OIL COKE 5 2 5 2 SOLVENT DEASPHALTER BOTTOMS 5 3 SYNTHESIS GAS PRODUCTION 5 3 1 PARTIAL OXIDATION TECHNOLOGY 5 3 1 1 SHELL GASIFICATION PROCESS 5 3 1 2 TEXACO PROCESS 5 3 1 3 PHILLIPS PROCESS 5 3 2 CATALYTIC PARTIAL OXIDATION 5 4 PRODUCTS 5 4 1 GAS PURIFICATION AND QUALITY 5 4 2 PROCESS OPTIMIZATION 5 5 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS 5 5 1 OTHER USES OF RESIDUA 5 5 2 GASIFICATION IN THE FUTURE REFINERY 6 GASIFICATION OF BIOMASS 6 1 INTRODUCTION 6 2 GASIFICATION CHEMISTRY 6 2 1 GENERAL ASPECTS 6 2 2 REACTIONS 6 2 2 1 WATER GAS SHIFT REACTION 6 2 2 2 CARBON DIOXIDE GASIFICATION 6 2 2 3 HYDROGASIFICATION 6 2 2 4 METHANATION 6 3 GASIFICATION PROCESSES 6 3 1 GASIFIERS 6 3 2 FISCHER-TROPSCH SYNTHESIS 6 3 3 FEEDSTOCKS 6 3 3 1 BIOMASS 6 3 3 2 GASIFICATION OF BIOMASS WITH COAL 6 3 3 3 GASIFICATION OF BIOMASS WITH OTHER FEEDSTOCKS 6 4 GAS PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTS 6 4 1 GAS PRODUCTION 6 4 2 GASEOUS PRODUCTS 6 4 2 1 SYNTHESIS GAS 6 4 2 2 LOW-BTU GAS 6 4 2 3 MEDIUM-BTU GAS 6 4 2 4 HIGH-BTU GAS 6 4 3 LIQUID PRODUCTS 6 4 4 SOLID PRODUCTS 6 5 THE FUTURE 7 GASIFICATION OF WASTE 7 1 INTRODUCTION 7 2 WASTE TYPES 7 2 1 SOLID WASTE 7 2 2 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE 7 2 3 INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE 7 2 4 BIO-SOLIDS 7 2 5 BIOMEDICAL WASTE 7 2 6 SEWAGE SLUDGE 7 3 FEEDSTOCK PROPERTIES 7 4 FUEL PRODUCTION 7 4 1 PREPROCESSING 7 4 2 PROCESS DESIGN 7 5 PROCESS PRODUCTS 7 5 1 SYNTHESIS GAS 7 5 2 CARBON DIOXIDE 7 5 3 TAR 7 5 4 PARTICULATE MATTER 7 5 5 HALOGENS/ACID GASES 7 5 6 HEAVY METALS 7 5 7 ALKALIS 7 5 8 SLAG 7 6 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS 8 REFORMING PROCESSES 8 1 INTRODUCTION 8 2 PROCESSES REQUIRING HYDROGEN 8 2 1 HYDROTREATING 8 2 2 HYDROCRACKING 8 3 FEEDSTOCKS 8 4 PROCESS CHEMISTRY 8 5 COMMERCIAL PROCESSES 8 5 1 AUTOTHERMAL REFORMING 8 5 2 COMBINED REFORMING 8 5 3 DRY REFORMING 8 5 4 STEAM-METHANE REFORMING 8 5 5 STEAM-NAPHTHA REFORMING 8 6 CATALYSTS 8 6 1 REFORMING CATALYSTS 8 6 2 SHIFT CONVERSION CATALYSTS 8 6 3 METHANATION CATALYSTS 8 7 HYDROGEN PURIFICATION 8 7 1 WET SCRUBBING 8 7 2 PRESSURE-SWING ADSORPTION UNITS 8 7 3 MEMBRANE SYSTEMS 8 7 4 CRYOGENIC SEPARATION 8 8 HYDROGEN MANAGEMENT 9 GAS CONDITIONING AND CLEANING 9 1 INTRODUCTION 9 2 GAS STREAMS 9 3 SYNTHESIS GAS CLEANING 9 3 1 COMPOSITION 9 3 2 PROCESS TYPES 9 4 WATER REMOVAL 9 4 1 ABSORPTION 9 4 2 ADSORPTION 9 4 3 CRYOGENICS 9 5 ACID GAS REMOVAL 9 5 1 ADSORPTION 9 5 2 ABSORPTION 9 5 3 CHEMISORPTION 9 5 4 OTHER PROCESSES 9 6 REMOVAL OF CONDENSABLE HYDROCARBONS 9 6 1 EXTRACTION 9 6 2 ABSORPTION 9 6 3 FRACTIONATION 9 6 4 ENRICHMENT 9 7 TAR REMOVAL 9 7 1 PHYSICAL METHODS 9 7 2 THERMAL METHODS 9 8 OTHER CONTAMINANT REMOVAL 9 8 1 NITROGEN REMOVAL 9 8 2 AMMONIA REMOVAL 9 8 3 PARTICULATE MATTER REMOVAL 9 8 4 SILOXANE REMOVAL 9 8 5 ALKALI METAL SALT REMOVAL 9 8 6 BIOLOGICAL METHODS 9 8 6 1 BIOFILTRATION 9 8 6 2 BIOSCRUBBING 9 8 6 3 BIO-OXIDATION 9 9 TAIL GAS CLEANING 9 9 1 CLAUS PROCESS 9 9 2 SCOT PROCESS PART 2: FUELS AND CHEMICALS FROM SYNTHESIS GAS 10 THE FISCHER-TROPSCH PROCESS 10 1 INTRODUCTION 10 2 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROCESS 10 3 SYNTHESIS GAS 10 4 PRODUCTION OF SYNTHESIS GAS 10 4 1 FEEDSTOCKS 10 4 2 PRODUCT DISTRIBUTION 10 5 PROCESS PARAMETERS 10 6 REACTORS AND CATALYSTS 10 6 1 REACTORS 10 6 2 CATALYSTS 10 7 PRODUCTS AND PRODUCT QUALITY 10 7 1 PRODUCTS 10 7 2 PRODUCT QUALITY 10 8 FISCHER-TROPSCH CHEMISTRY 10 8 1 CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES 10 8 2 REFINING FISCHER-TROPSCH PRODUCTS 11 SYNTHESIS GAS IN THE REFINERY 11 1 INTRODUCTION 11 2 PROCESSES AND FEEDSTOCKS 11 2 1 GASIFICATION OF RESIDUA 11 2 2 GASIFICATION OF RESIDUA WITH COAL 11 2 3 GASIFICATION OF RESIDUA WITH BIOMASS 11 2 4 GASIFICATION OF RESIDUA WITH WASTE 11 3 SYNTHETIC FUEL PRODUCTION 11 3 1 FISCHER-TROPSCH SYNTHESIS 11 3 2 FISCHER-TROPSCH LIQUIDS 11 3 3 UPGRADING FISCHER-TROPSCH LIQUIDS 11 3 3 1 GASOLINE PRODUCTION 11 3 3 2 DIESEL PRODUCTION 11 4 SABATIER-SENDERENS PROCESS 11 4 1 METHANOL PRODUCTION 11 4 2 DIMETHYL ETHER PRODUCTION 11 5 THE FUTURE 12 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION 12 1 INTRODUCTION 12 2 PROCESSES 12 2 1 FEEDSTOCKS 12 2 2 COMMERCIAL PROCESSES 12 2 2 1 HYDROCARBON GASIFICATION 12 2 2 2 HYPRO PROCESS 12 2 2 3 HYDROGEN FROM PYROLYSIS PROCESSES 12 2 2 4 HYDROGEN FROM REFINERY GAS 12 2 2 5 OTHER OPTIONS 12 2 3 PROCESS CHEMISTRY 12 3 HYDROGEN PURIFICATION 12 3 1 WET SCRUBBING 12 3 2 PRESSURE-SWING ADSORPTION 12 3 3 MEMBRANE SYSTEMS 12 3 4 CRYOGENIC SEPARATION 12 4 HYDROGEN MANAGEMENT 13 CHEMICALS FROM SYNTHESIS GAS 13 1 INTRODUCTION 13 2 HISTORICAL ASPECTS AND OVERVIEW 13 3 THE PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY 13 4 PETROCHEMICALS 13 4 1 PRIMARY PETROCHEMICALS 13 4 2 PRODUCTS AND END USE 13 4 3 PRODUCTION OF PETROCHEMICALS 13 4 4 GASEOUS FUELS AND CHEMICALS 13 4 4 1 AMMONIA 13 4 4 2 HYDROGEN 13 4 4 3 SYNTHETIC NATURAL GAS 13 4 5 LIQUID FUELS AND CHEMICALS 13 4 5 1 FISCHER-TROPSCH LIQUIDS 13 4 5 2 METHANOL 13 4 5 3 DIMETHYL ETHER 13 4 5 4 METHANOL-TO-GASOLINE AND OLEFINS 13 4 5 5 OTHER PROCESSES 13 5 THE FUTURE 14 TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION 14 1 INTRODUCTION 14 2 APPLICATIONS AND PRODUCTS 14 2 1 CHEMICALS AND FERTILIZERS 14 2 2 SUBSTITUTE NATURAL GAS 14 2 3 HYDROGEN FOR CRUDE OIL REFINING 14 2 4 TRANSPORTATION FUELS 14 2 5 TRANSPORTATION FUELS FROM TAR SAND BITUMEN 14 2 6 POWER GENERATION 14 2 7 WASTE-TO-ENERGY GASIFICATION 14 2 8 BIOMASS GASIFICATION 14 3 ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS 14 3 1 CARBON DIOXIDE 14 3 2 AIR EMISSIONS 14 3 3 SOLIDS GENERATION 14 3 4 WATER USE 14 4 A PROCESS FOR NOW AND THE FUTURE 14 4 1 THE PROCESS 14 4 2 REFINERY OF THE FUTURE 14 4 3 ECONOMIC ASPECTS 14 4 4 MARKET OUTLOOK 14 5 CONCLUSIONS COVERSION FACTORS