NUTRITIONAL FACTORS AFFECTING MINERAL STATUS AND LONG TERM CARRY-OVER EFFECTS IN RUMINANTS
CONTENTS PART I CALCIUM 1 CALCIUM-SENSING RECEPTOR POLYMORPHISMS AND HUMAN DISEASE INTRODUCTION CALCIUM-SENSING RECEPTOR GENE POLYMORPHISMS AND CALCIUM–PHOSPHATE HOMEOSTASIS CALCIUM-SENSING RECEPTOR GENE POLYMORPHISMS AND DISORDERS OF THE PARATHYROID GLANDS CALCIUM-SENSING RECEPTOR GENE POLYMORPHISMS AND DISORDERS OF THE KIDNEY CALCIUM-SENSING RECEPTOR GENE POLYMORPHISMS AND BONE MINERAL DENSITY CONCLUSIONS SUMMARY POINTS KEY FACTS MINI DICTIONARY OF TERMS REFERENCES 2 MOLECULAR ASPECTS OF THE CALCIUM-SENSING RECEPTOR AND CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS INTRODUCTION STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF THE CALCIUM- SENSING RECEPTOR CALCIUM-SENSING RECEPTOR FUNCTION IN THE PARATHYROID GLAND CALCIUM-SENSING RECEPTOR FUNCTION IN BONE CALCIUM-SENSING RECEPTOR FUNCTION IN THE KIDNEY PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS OF THE KIDNEY AND CALCIUM-SENSING RECEPTOR MODULATION CALCIUM-SENSING RECEPTOR FUNCTION IN THE GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM CALCIUM-SENSING RECEPTOR FUNCTION IN THE SKIN CONCLUSION 3 NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE REGULATION OF CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS BY VITAMIN D INTRODUCTION BIOACTIVATION OF VITAMIN D REGULATION OF VITAMIN D METABOLISM NEW INSIGHTS INTO MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THE EFFECTS OF 1,25(OH)2D3 IN INTESTINE, KIDNEY, AND BONE GENOMIC MECHANISM OF 1,25-DIHYDROXY VITAMIN D3 ACTION SUMMARY POINTS AND KEY FACTS 4 CALCIUM IN OBESITY AND RELATED DISEASES: THE CALCIUM-SENSING RECEPTOR AS A NOVEL MEDIATOR INTRODUCTION OBESITY: A SERIOUS PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEM WORLDWIDE CELLULAR MECHANISMS FOR FAT DYSFUNCTION: ROLE OF CALCIUM 5 CALCIUM: BASIC NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS INTRODUCTION 6 MOLECULAR ASPECTS OF CALCIUM AND BONE MINERALIZATION INTRODUCTION METABOLISM AND REGULATION CALCIUM, GENETICS, AND GENETIC DISORDERS OTHER GENETIC FACTORS AFFECTING CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS PART II COPPER 7 COPPER: BASIC PHYSIOLOGICAL AND NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS COPPER: HISTORICAL FACTS COPPER BIOCHEMISTRY BIOCHEMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGIC FUNCTIONS OF COPPER CATALYTIC FUNCTIONS OF COPPER (COPPER-DEPENDENT PROTEINS) PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF COPPER COPPER BIOAVAILABILITY AND NUTRIENT INTERACTIONS COPPER METABOLISM COPPER DEFICIENCY IN HUMANS COPPER: DIETARY CONSIDERATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS EVALUATION OF COPPER STATUS COPPER TOXICITY AND UPPER LIMITS ACKNOWLEDGMENT 8 COPPER AND MOLECULAR ASPECTS OF CELL SIGNALING INTRODUCTION THE COPPER METALLOPROTEOME COPPER MODULATION OF CELL SIGNALING COPPER AS A REGULATOR OF EPIGENETICS CELL–CELL SIGNALING REGULATED BY COPPER HOW OTHER MINERALS ARE AFFECTED OR BEHAVE PERSPECTIVES 9 COPPER AND HYPOXIA-INDUCIBLE TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION INTRODUCTION TO HYPOXIA-INDUCIBLE FACTORS MECHANISMS BY WHICH CU REGULATES HYPOXIA-INDUCIBLE FACTOR-1 ACTIVITY CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS OPEN QUESTIONS 10 COPPER IN WILSON’S AND ALZHEIMER’S DISEASES, COPPER-LOWERING THERAPY IN CANCER AND OTHER DISEASES, AND COPPER DEFICIENCY INTRODUCTION WILSON’S DISEASE ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE THE PROMISE OF COPPER-LOWERING THERAPY IN CANCER AND OTHER DISEASES CLINICAL COPPER DEFICIENCY PART III IODINE 11 IODINE: BASIC NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS ROLE OF IODINE IODINE METABOLISM SOURCES OF IODINE NUTRITION RECOMMENDED DIETARY INTAKE OF IODINE FACTORS INFLUENCING IODINE BIOAVAILABILITY ASSESSMENT OF IODINE NUTRITION IODINE DEFICIENCY TREATMENT AND PREVENTION OF IODINE DEFICIENCY TOXIC EFFECTS OF EXCESS IODINE INTAKE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 12 IODINE AND THYROID HORMONE SYNTHESIS, METABOLISM, AND ACTION IODIDE TRANSPORT IODINE CLEARANCE DIRECT ACTIONS OF IODINE THYROID HORMONE ACTION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 13 IODINE AND ADIPOCYTOKINES: CELLULAR ASPECTS INTRODUCTION THE ROLE OF IODINE IN THE HUMAN BODY POSSIBLE MECHANISM OF IODINE ACTION IODINE AND ADIPOCYTOKINES PART IV IRON 14 IRON: BASIC NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS INTRODUCTION PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF IRON ADVERSE CONSEQUENCES OF TOO MUCH IRON FINDING THE RIGHT BALANCE IRON AND OUR DIET 15 HEPCIDIN AND THE HORMONAL CONTROL OF IRON HOMEOSTASIS INTRODUCTION BIOLOGY OF HEPCIDIN THE REGULATION OF HEPCIDIN EXPRESSION 16 GENETIC RODENT MODELS OF SYSTEMIC IRON HOMEOSTASIS INTRODUCTION MATERNAL–FETAL AND MATERNAL–NEONATAL IRON PHYSIOLOGY OVERVIEW OF DIETARY IRON ABSORPTION GASTRIC ACIDIFICATION IRON IMPORT INTO DUODENUM IRON EXPORT FROM DUODENUM TO BLOOD REGULATION OF HEPCIDIN EXPRESSION DISTRIBUTION OF IRON TO ORGANS CELLULAR IRON UTILIZATION ERYTHROPOIESIS RECYCLING OF IRON FROM RED CELLS IRON EXPORT IRON TOXICITY AREAS FOR ADDITIONAL MODELS AND FUTURE RESEARCH OTHER MINERALS 17 IRON, CANCER, AND HYPOXIA-INDUCIBLE FACTOR SIGNALING INTRODUCTION OXYGEN-SENSING TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS OXYGEN AND IRON SIGNALING HYPOXIA AND CANCER IRON AND CANCER RISK MECHANISMS REGULATING INTRATUMORAL IRON MECHANISMS OF IRON ACTION POTENTIAL IN CANCER THERAPY OTHER MINERALS IN CANCER 18 IRON TRANSPORTERS AND IRON HOMEOSTASIS OVERVIEW OF WHOLE-BODY IRON HOMEOSTASIS AND SCOPE OF REVIEW DIETARY IRON ABSORPTION BY THE ENTEROCYTE IRON METABOLISM IN THE HEPATOCYTE IRON METABOLISM IN THE DEVELOPING ERYTHROID CELL REGULATION OF IRON HOMEOSTASIS BY HEPCIDIN 19 REGULATION OF DIVALENT METAL-ION TRANSPORTER-1 EXPRESSION AND FUNCTION INTRODUCTION—HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ONE DIVALENT METAL-ION TRANSPORTER-1 FUNCTION—NUTRITIONAL IRON ENTRY INTO DUODENAL ENTEROCYTES A SECOND DMT1 FUNCTION—ENDOSOMAL EXPORT AFTER IRON ACQUISITION IN MOST CELLS VIA THE TF CYCLE REDUCTION, DIVALENT METAL-ION TRANSPORTER-1 FUNCTION, AND IRON METABOLISM ISOFORMS, INTERACTIONS, AND MODIFICATIONS REGULATION—AN OVERVIEW DMT1 REGULATION—TRANSCRIPTION REGULATION—POSTTRANSCRIPTIONALLY AT THE MRNA LEVEL REGULATION—AT THE TRANSLATIONAL LEVEL REGULATION—POSTTRANSLATIONALLY AT THE PROTEIN TURNOVER LEVEL PART V ZINC 20 DISCOVERY OF ZINC FOR HUMAN HEALTH AND BIOMARKERS OF ZINC DEFICIENCY INTRODUCTION DISCOVERY OF ZINC AS AN ESSENTIAL ELEMENT FOR HUMAN HEALTH THERAPEUTIC IMPACT OF ZINC BIOMARKERS OF ZINC DEFICIENCY IN EGYPT 21 ZINC SIGNALS AND IMMUNE FUNCTION SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION IN MAMMALIAN CELLS THE IMMUNE SYSTEM THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLE OF ZINC IN THE IMMUNE SYSTEM ZINC SIGNALS SENSORS FOR ZINC SIGNALS TARGETS OF ZINC SIGNALS 22 POSTTRANSLATIONAL MECHANISMS OF ZINC SIGNALING INTRODUCTION ZINC-TRANSPORT PROTEINS POSTTRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATION OF ZINC-TRANSPORT PROTEINS APPLICATIONS HOW OTHER MINERALS ARE AFFECTED 23 ZINC TRANSPORTERS IN HEALTH AND DISEASE INTRODUCTION ZIP AND ZNT TRANSPORTER BIOCHEMISTRY ZIP AND ZNT TRANSPORTERS IN HEALTH AND DISEASE ZINC TRANSPORTERS AND INHERITED HUMAN DISEASES ZNT AND ZIP SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISMS 24 GENETIC STUDY OF ZINC TRANSPORTERS AND ZINC SIGNALING INTRODUCTION: ZINC AS AN ESSENTIAL TRACE ELEMENT ZINC TRANSPORTERS AND SIGNALING IN PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOGENESIS ZINC TRANSPORTERS AND THE “ZN SIGNALING AXIS” FUTURE PERSPECTIVES PART VI MAGNESIUM 25 MAGNESIUM: BASIC NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS INTRODUCTION TISSUE DISTRIBUTION BIOLOGICAL ROLES BODY HOMEOSTASIS REQUIREMENTS DIETARY DEFICIENCY OCCURRENCE STATUS ASSESSMENT DEFICIENCY SIGNS DIETARY SOURCES TOXICITY 26 MAGNESIUM AND THE IMMUNE RESPONSE INTRODUCTION (BACKGROUND) GENERAL STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF MG2+ PERMEABLE ION CHANNELS AND TRANSPORTERS MG2+ AND ITS POTENTIAL ROLES IN IMMUNORECEPTOR SIGNALING SLC41A1 AND SLC41A2—RELATIVES OF THE BACTERIAL MGTE FAMILY THE CHANNEL KINASES TRPM6 AND TRPM7—MG2+ SENSORS AND MASTER REGULATORS 27 MAGNESIUM INTAKE AND CHRONIC DISEASE IN HUMANS INTRODUCTION MAGNESIUM AND DIABETES MELLITUS MAGNESIUM AND METABOLIC SYNDROME MAGNESIUM AND HYPERTENSION MAGNESIUM AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE MAGNESIUM AND CANCER MAGNESIUM AND INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER MINERALS 28 MAGNESIUM AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT INTRODUCTION CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MAGNESIUM AND ITS FUNCTION AND REGULATION IN CELLS MAGNESIUM’S IMPACT ON EMBRYOGENESIS CHANNELS DURING EMBRYOGENESIS TRPM7 REGULATES GASTRULATION DURING VERTEBRATE EMBRYOGENESIS 29 MAGNESIUM, VASCULAR FUNCTION, AND HYPERTENSION INTRODUCTION MAGNESIUM METABOLISM MAGNESIUM ABSORPTION IN THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT MAGNESIUM EXCRETION BY THE KIDNEY COMPARTMENTALIZATION OF MAGNESIUM IN THE BODY REGULATION OF CELLULAR MAGNESIUM HOMEOSTASIS CELLULAR MAGNESIUM INFLUX TRPM6 AND TRPM7 CATION CHANNELS MAGNESIUM TRANSPORTER SUBTYPE MAGNESIUM EFFLUX FROM CELLS MAGNESIUM AND VASCULAR FUNCTION TRPM7 AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE PART VII MANGANESE 30 NUTRITIONAL, GENETIC, AND MOLECULAR ASPECTS OF MANGANESE INTOXICATION ESSENTIALITY AND TOXICITY OF MANGANESE MECHANISMS OF MN TRANSPORT TO THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF MN NEUROTOXICITY GENETIC ASPECTS OF MN INTOXICATION CONCLUDING REMARKS 31 MANGANESE AND NUTRITIONAL IMMUNITY INTRODUCTION MANGANESE DISTRIBUTION CALPROTECTIN: CHELATING MANGANESE AND ZINC AT THE SITE OF INFECTION NATURAL RESISTANCE-ASSOCIATED MACROPHAGE PROTEIN-1/SLC11A1: STARVING BACTERIA IN MACROPHAGES BACTERIAL MANGANESE IMPORTERS: ACQUIRING MANGANESE DURING INFECTION MANGANESE-REQUIRING PROCESSES IN BACTERIAL PATHOGENS INTERSECTION OF MANGANESE NUTRITIONAL IMMUNITY WITH OTHER MINERALS AREAS FOR FUTURE STUDY 32 MANGANESE AND MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTION INTRODUCTION MANGANESE SPECIATION: DOES MN2+ OR MN3+ CAUSE THE MOST DAMAGE? MITOCHONDRIA THE MITOCHONDRIAL ROLE IN APOPTOSIS MANGANESE INHIBITION OF OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION MANGANESE-INDUCED INCREASES IN MITOCHONDRIAL PRODUCTION OF REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES EVIDENCE FOR INDUCTION OF APOPTOSIS BY MANGANESE PART VIII MOLYBDENUM 33 MOLYBDENUM COFACTOR IN HUMANS: HEALTH, DISEASE, AND TREATMENT INTRODUCTION DEFICIENCIES IN MOLYBDENUM ENZYMES MOLYBDENUM COFACTOR DEFICIENCY TREATMENT OF MOLYBDENUM COFACTOR DEFICIENCY ASSOCIATION OF MOLYBDENUM WITH OTHER METALS AND DISORDERS CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS PART IX PHOSPHORUS 34 PHOSPHORUS: BASIC NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS INTRODUCTION 35 MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF ADVERSE HEALTH EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH EXCESS PHOSPHORUS INTAKE INTRODUCTION MOLECULAR MECHANISMS REGULATING PHOSPHORUS HOMEOSTASIS EXCESS PHOSPHORUS INTAKE ASSOCIATED WITH DISRUPTION OF REGULATORY MECHANISMS RELATED TO PHOSPHORUS HOMEOSTASIS AND DISEASE RISK SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS DISCLAIMER 36 TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION OF SODIUM-PHOSPHATE COTRANSPORTER GENE EXPRESSION INTRODUCTION REGULATORY FACTORS OF TYPE II NAPI COTRANSPORTERS TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION OF SLC34A1/NAPI-IIA GENE CONTENTS TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION OF SLC34A2/NAPI-IIB GENE TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION OF THE SLC34A3/NAPI-IIC GENE CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVE PART X SELENIUM 37 SELENIUM: BASIC NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS NUTRITIONAL ESSENTIALITY AND METABOLISM OF SELENIUM INCORPORATION OF SELENIUM INTO SELENOPROTEINS PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF SELENOPROTEINS REGULATION OF SELENOPROTEIN EXPRESSION PHARMACOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SELENIUM SELENIUM TOXICITY AND INTERACTIONS WITH VITAMIN E AND MINERALS NEW METHODS AND MODELS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 38 SELENIUM AND CANCER INTRODUCTION SELENIUM AND EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES SELENOCOMPOUNDS OR SELENOPROTEINS? POLYMORPHISMS IN SELENOPROTEINS AND RELEVANCE TO CANCER 39 COULD SELENIUM BE A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD? INTRODUCTION SOURCES OF ANIMAL-BASED SE FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION SELENOPROTEINS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS MECHANISMS OF SELENIUM/SELENOPROTEIN ACTION NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF SELENIUM TYPES OF SELENIUM SUPPLEMENTS DUAL ROLE OF CANCER PREVENTION AND PROMOTION INTERACTION OF SELENIUM WITH OTHER MICRO NUTRIENTS PART XI ELECTROLYTES 40 SODIUM: BASIC NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS INTRODUCTION 41 POTASSIUM CHANNEL MUTATIONS AND HUMAN DISEASE: FOCUS ON ADRENAL HYPERTENSION INTRODUCTION BROAD CLASSIFICATION OF POTASSIUM CHANNELS KNOWN MUTATED POTASSIUM CHANNEL GENES AND ASSOCIATED PHENOTYPES PRIMARY ALDOSTERONISM: A COMMON CAUSE OF HYPERTENSION ASSOCIATED WITH KCNJ5 MUTATIONS PART XII NONESSENTIALS 42 CHROMIUM: BASIC NUTRITIONAL AND TOXICOLOGICAL ASPECTS INTRODUCTION CHROMIUM IS NOT AN ESSENTIAL ELEMENT CHROMIUM(III) TOXICITY AND THE FATE OF CHROMIUM SUPPLEMENTS IN VIVO PHARMACOLOGICALLY ACTIVE CHROMIUM 43 NONESSENTIAL TRACE MINERALS: BASIC NUTRITIONAL AND TOXICOLOGICAL ASPECTS INTRODUCTION BORON SILICON 44 FLUORIDE: INTAKE AND METABOLISM, THERAPEUTIC AND TOXICOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES CHEMICAL ORIGIN AND PROPERTIES SOURCES OF FLUORIDE EXPOSURE FLUORIDE METABOLISM FUNCTION EXCESSIVE INTAKE AND TOXICITY ADEQUATE DAILY INTAKE AND TOLERABLE UPPER INTAKE LEVEL