AN INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY
Chapter 1 Concepts of Soil Science 1 Introduction 1 11 Components of Global Ecosystem 2 111 The Earth System 3 112 Components of an Ecosystem 7 113 Potential Threat to Ecosystems 9 12 The Pedosphere 10 121 Formation of the Pedosphere 11 122 Weathering and Erosion 11 123 Variations in Pedosphere 12 124 Human Influence on the Pedosphere 12 13 Definition of Soil 12 131 Types of Soil 14 132 Components of Soil 18 14 Importance and Functions of Soil 27 141 Importance of Soil 27 142 Functions of Soil 27 15 Concepts of the Study of Soil 28 151 Soil Science 29 152 Pedology 31 153 Edaphlogy 31 16 History of Soil Science 34 161 Branches of Soil Science 35 162 Soil Classification 35 163 Soil Formation 35 164 Soil Morphology 36 165 Importance of Soil Science 36 TABLE OF CONTENTS Summary 39 Multiple Choice Questions 41 Review Questions 42 References 44 Chapter 2 Sustaining Plant and Soil Productivity 45 Introduction 45 21 Grow Healthy Plants 47 211 Creating the Right Environmental Conditions 48 212 Providing Water and Food 49 213 Using Tricks to Make Plants Thrive 50 22 Choosing Sustainable Plants 51 221 Plant Selection for Sustainable Landscapes 52 23 Plant Conservation 55 231 The Size of the World’s Flora and its Distribution 57 232 Conservation of Plant Biodiversity: Why should we Care? 57 233 Causes of Plant Species Decline and Extinction 59 234 Population Viability Analysis 61 235 Shortcuts for Defining Plant Conservation Priorities 61 236 Plant Conservation at Multiple Scales 64 24 Soil Productivity and Pro-Poor Growth 67 241 The contribution of soil management to growth 68 242 Policies and measures to encourage improved soil management 69 25 Managing soils for long-term productivity 71 251 Crop Productivity and the Soil 73 252 Soil Degradation 73 253 Sustainability and Resilience in the Context of Soil Degradation 75 254 Managing Soil Fertility 76 255 Modeling Changes in Soil Organic Matter 77 256 Nutrient Depletion 78 26 Precision Technologies 80 Summary 94 Multiple Choice Questions 96 Review Questions 97 References 98 Chapter 3 Soil Fertility & Management 101 Introduction 101 31 Soil Fertility 102 311 Nutrient Deficiencies 103 312 Soil Test Interpretations 105 313 Nutrient Management 107 314 Different approaches to efficiently manage soil fertility 107 315 Soils as the Foundation of Organic Farming 109 316 Methods Used to Build Soils 116 317 Problems Associated with Nutrient Over-Addition 117 318 Soil Tests and Nutrient Budgeting 118 32 Soil pH 119 321 Measuring Soil pH 120 322 pH Affects Nutrients, Minerals and Growth 121 323 Changes in Soil pH 122 33 Nutrient Diagnostic Procedures 122 331 Plant Food 124 332 Mineral Nutrients 125 333 Methods of Nutritional Diagnosis 126 334 Determining Nutritional Status of Container Crops 127 34 Fertilizers 129 341 What is fertilizer used for? 129 342 Difference between Mineral Fertilizers and Organic Fertilizers 130 343 Benefits of Fertilizers 131 35 Site-Specific Agriculture 132 351 How can a farmer begin using site-specific farming 132 352 Managing data 138 353 The benefits 138 Summary 143 Multiple Choice Questions 144 Review Questions 145 References 147 Chapter 4 Integrated Pest Management 149 Introduction 149 41 Approaches of Integrated Pest Management 150 411 Conventional Pest Control and its Problems 151 412 Performance of Integrated Pest Management 152 413 Biological Control of Pests 153 414 The Future of Pest Management 154 415 IPM Process 158 416 Integrated Pest Management Principles 160 42 Plant Health and Pests 161 421 Pest Management Tactics 162 422 Benefits of IPM 164 423 Agroecosystems 164 424 Genetically Modified Crops 165 425 Safely Using Pesticides 166 426 Biological Management: Use of Predators, Parasitoids, and Pathogens 167 427 IPM Programs Work 169 428 Formulating an IPM Plan 170 43 Pesticide Application Techniques 173 431 Objective of Pesticide Application 175 432 Spraying Techniques 177 433 Dusters and Dust Applications 186 434 Pesticide Application Problems 188 Summary 201 Multiple Choice Questions 202 Review Questions 203 References 204 Chapter 5 Insects and Nematodes 205 Introduction 205 51 Overview of Nematodes 206 511 Characteristics of Plant Nematodes 207 512 Types of Plant Nematodes 207 513 Saprophytic Nematodes 208 514 Parasitic Nematodes 208 515 Beneficial Nematodes 210 516 Intestinal Nematodes 211 517 Life Cycle of Intestinal Nematodes 216 518 Plant-Nematode Interactions 224 519 Plant Nematode Control 230 52 Importance of Nematodes 232 521 Simple Structure 233 522 Basic Life Cycle 234 523 How Nematodes Damage Plants? 236 524 Nematodes Effect in the Soil 238 525 Nematodes for Fleas 240 53 Insects of Plants 242 531 Definitions of Insects 243 532 Importance of Insect 244 533 General Features 246 534 Insects as a Source of Raw Materials 247 535 Insect Damage to Commercial Products 247 Summary 249 Multiple Choice Questions 250 Review Questions 251 References 252 Chapter 6 Plant Disease 255 Introduction 255 61 Nature and Importance of Plant Diseases 256 611 Diseases—A Normal Part of Nature 257 612 Definitions of Plant Disease 258 62 Factors Affecting Disease Development 259 621 Disease Triangle 260 622 Pathogen Factors 260 623 Host Factors 266 624 Environmental Factors 268 625 Requirements for Disease Development 272 63 Diagnosis of Plant Diseases 273 631 Variable Factors Affecting Diagnosis 273 632 Technological Advances in the Identification of Pathogenic Agents 283 64 Principles of Disease Control 284 641 Exclusion and Avoidance 285 642 Eradication 285 643 Protection 286 644 Chemical Control 287 645 Biological Control 288 646 Therapy 289 647 Host Resistance and Selection 289 648 Variable Resistance 289 Summary 294 Multiple choice Questions 295 Review Questions 296 References 297 Chapter 7 Weeds 299 Introduction 299 71 Weeds 300 711 Weeds – Harmful and Beneficial Effects 301 712 Characteristics of Weeds 302 713 Harmful Effects 302 714 Beneficial Effects 304 72 Classification Of Weeds 305 721 Based on Life Span 305 722 Based on Ecological Affinities 307 723 Based on Soil Type (Edaphic) 309 724 Based on Place of Occurrence 309 725 Based on Origin 310 726 Based on Cotyledon Number 311 727 Based on soil pH 311 728 Based on Morphology 312 729 Based on Nature of Stem 313 7210 Based on Specificity 313 73 How Weeds Spread? 317 731 Stock Feed 317 732 Stock 317 733 Machinery 318 734 Soil Disturbance 318 735 Humans And Animals 318 736 Garden Escapees 318 737 Water and Wind 318 738 Explosive Projection 318 74 Propagation and Dissemination of Weed Seeds 319 741 Reproduction by Seed 319 742 Vegetative Reproduction 319 743 Dissemination / Dispersal 320 75 Methods Of Weed Control 326 751 Preventive Weed Control 326 752 Eradication: (ideal weed control rarely achieved) 327 753 Control 328 754 Weed Management 328 76 Mechanical Weed Control 328 761 Tillage 328 762 Hoeing 329 763 Hand Weeding 330 764 Digging 330 765 Sickling and Mowing 330 766 Burning 330 767 Flooding 331 768 Mechanical Weeders 332 769 Cultural Weed Control 334 Summary 340 Multiple Choice Questions 341 Review Questions 342 References 343