MICROBIAL TOXINS: ALGAL AND FUNGAL TOXINS
CONTENTS 1 MICROBIAL TOXINS – AN OVERVIEW 11 INTRODUCTION 12 MICROBIAL TOXINS: MODES OF ACTION 13 BACTERIAL TOXINS 131 STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENTEROTOXINS (SES) 132 BACILLUS CEREUS GROUP ENTEROTOXINS 133 CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM NEROTOXIN 14 MYCOTOXINS 141 BACKGROUND 142 GENERAL ASPECTS OF MYCOTOXINS 143 POSTSCRIPT ON MYCOTOXINS 15 BIOGENIC AMINES (BAS) 16 CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES 2 INCIDENCES OF MOULD AND BACTERIAL TOXINS IN DAIRY PRODUCTS 21 BACKGROUND 22 BACTERIAL TOXINS 221 EMETIC TOXIN PRODUCED BY BACILLUS CEREUS 222 ENTEROTOXINS PRODUCED BY STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS 223 BOTULINUM NEUROTOXINS PRODUCED BY CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM 23 MOULD TOXINS (MYCOTOXINS) 232 STERIGMATOCYSTIN 233 OCHRATOXIN A 24 OTHER MYCOTOXINS 25 CONCLUSION 3 BACTERIAL TOXINS – STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES AND MODE OF ACTION 31 BACKGROUND 32 BACILLUS CEREUS TOXINS 321 BACILLUS CEREUS EMETIC TOXIN 322 BACILLUS CEREUS ENTEROTOXINS 323 BACILLUS CEREUS HAEMOLYSIN BL (HBL) 324 BACILLUS CEREUS NON?HAEMOLYTIC ENTEROTOXIN (NHE) 325 CYTOTOXIN K (CYT K) 33 BOTULINUM NEUROTOXIN 331 OUTBREAKS OF BOTULISM CAUSED BY DAIRY PRODUCTS 332 STRUCTURE OF BOTULINUM NEUROTOXIN 333 MODE OF ACTION OF BONTS 34 STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS ENTEROTOXIN 35 CONCLUSIONS 4 BIOGENIC AMINES IN DAIRY PRODUCTS 41 INTRODUCTION 42 BIOCHEMISTRY: BIOSYNTHESIS PATHWAYS, ENZYMES AND TRANSPORTERS 421 TYRAMINE 422 HISTAMINE 423 PUTRESCINE 424 CADAVERINE, ??PHENYLETHYLAMINE, TRYPTAMINE 43 BIOGENIC AMINE?PRODUCING MICRO?ORGANISMS 431 GENES INVOLVED IN THE BIOSYNTHESIS OF BIOGENIC AMINES 432 IS THE PRODUCTION OF BAS A STRAIN- OR SPECIES-DEPENDENT CHARACTERISTIC? 433 PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF BAS BIOSYNTHESIS 44 TOXICOLOGICAL EFFECTS 441 TYRAMINE 442 HISTAMINE 443 PUTRESCINE AND POLYAMINES 444 CADAVERINE, TRYPTAMINE AND ??PHENYLETHYLAMINE 445 RECOMMENDED LIMITS OF BAS 45 FACTORS AFFECTING BAS ACCUMULATION IN DAIRY PRODUCTS 451 PRESENCE OF BAS-PRODUCING BACTERIA 452 PHYSIOCHEMICAL FACTORS 453 TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS 46 OTHER PREVENTIVE METHODS 47 CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 5 CONTAMINATION OF RAW MILK: SOURCES AND ROUTES UP TO THE FARM GATE INTRODUCTION THE CONCEPT OF CONTAMINATION WHAT DOES CONTAMINATION MEAN TO THE CONCEPT OF FOOD? CONTAMINATION AND COW HEALTH SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION BIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION MYCOTOXINS PHYSICAL CONTAMINATION CONCLUSION 6 MILK PRODUCT CONTAMINATION AFTER THE FARM GATE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION PRODUCT SPOILAGE FOOD-BORNE ILLNESS MICROBIAL TOXINS FACTORIES, PROCESSES AND PEOPLE RAW MILK HANDLING MILK?PROCESSING AND DAIRY PRODUCTS MANUFACTURE LIQUID MILK AND CREAM PROCESSING PACKING, STORAGE, DISTRIBUTION AND THE RETAIL ENVIRONMENT BUTTERMAKING CHEESEMAKING YOGHURT MILK POWDERS 610 EVAPORATED MILK AND SWEETENED CONDENSED MILK 6101 EVAPORATED MILK 6102 SWEETENED CONDENSED MILK 611 ICE-CREAM 612 HYGIENE, FOOD SAFETY MANAGEMENT AND CLEANING?IN?PLACE (CIP) 613 PACKAGING, STORAGE, DISTRIBUTION AND THE RETAIL ENVIRONMENT 614 CONCLUSIONS 7 TECHNIQUES FOR DETECTION, QUANTIFICATION AND CONTROL OF BACTERIAL TOXINS BACTERIAL TOXINS 73 CONTROL OF TOXINS 74 METHODS FOR IDENTIFICATION AND DETECTION OF MICROBIAL TOXINS 741 TRADITIONAL BIOLOGICAL ASSAYS 742 ANTIBODY AND IMMUNOASSAY 75 CONCLUSION 8 TECHNIQUES FOR DETECTION, QUANTIFICATION AND CONTROL OF MYCOTOXINS IN DAIRY PRODUCTS 81 INTRODUCTION 82 METHODS FOR DETECTION AND QUANTIFICATION OF MYCOTOXINS 821 SAMPLE PRE-TREATMENT METHOD 822 LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION 823 SUPERCRITICAL FLUID EXTRACTION 824 SOLID PHASE EXTRACTION 83 SEPARATION METHODS 831 THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY 832 HIGH PRESSURE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY (HPLC) 833 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY (GC) 834 CAPILLARY ELECTROPHORESIS (CE) 835 BIOSENSORS 836 ENZYME-LINKED IMMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY (ELISA) METHOD 837 ELECTROCHEMICAL IMMUNOASSAY 838 POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR)-BASED DETECTION AND QUANTIFICATION 84 MATHEMATICAL MODEL (EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT OF MYCOTOXINS IN DAIRY MILK) 85 CONTROL OF MYCOTOXIN 851 PHYSICAL METHODS 852 CHEMICAL METHODS 853 BIOLOGICAL METHODS 854 ACTIVATED CARBON (AC) 86 CONCLUSION 9 APPROACHES TO ASSESS THE RISKS/MODELLING OF MICROBIAL GROWTH AND TOXIN PRODUCTION 91 BACKGROUND ON RISK ANALYSIS 92 FOCUS ON CHEESE RISK ASSESSMENT 921 SOURCE OF MILK 922 RAW AND/OR HEAT-TREATED MILK CHEESES 923 LEVEL OF MOISTURE IN CHEESE METHODS OF MANUFACTURE FAT CONTENT MATURATION INDICES WASHED OR MOULD CHEESES STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS BACKGROUND STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS AND PRODUCTION OF STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENETEROTOXINS CHEESE PRODUCTION AND HAZARD CHARACTERISATION OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS CHEESEMAKING CONDITIONS AND EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS PREDICTIVE MODELLING AND RISK ASSESSMENT OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS AND ENTEROTOXIN PRODUCTION IN CHEESE ESCHERICHIA COLI HAZARD IDENTIFICATION GROWTH AND INACTIVATION HAZARD CHARACTERISATION EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT RISK CHARACTERISATION LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES CHEESE ? CHEMICAL RISK ASSESSMENT BIOGENIC AMINES IN CHEESE OCCURRENCE OF BIOGENIC AMINES IN CHEESE: HAZARD AND EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT METHOD FOR CONTROLLING BIOGENIC AMINES IN FOOD MODELLING OF GROWTH AND INACTIVATION: KINETIC APPROACHES MODEL CATEGORIES: AN OVERVIEW GROWTH ? NO GROWTH INTERFACE: A PROBABILISTIC APPROACH MODELLING OF TOXIN PRODUCTION CONCLUSIONS 10 REGULATORY MEASURES FOR MICROBIAL TOXINS 101 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 102 THE EVOLUTION AND ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF HEAT?TREATED MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS 1021 FLUID MILK 1022 EVAPORATED AND SWEETENED CONDENSED MILKS 1023 MILK AND DAIRY POWDERS 1024 CHEESES (NATURAL AND PROCESSED) AND FERMENTED MILKS 103 BACTERIAL TOXINS 1031 STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENTEROTOXINS 1032 BACILLUS CEREUS TOXINS 1033 CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM TOXINS 104 REGULATORY PROVISIONS ON BACTERIAL TOXINS IN MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS 1041 EUROPEAN REGULATIONS ON FOOD HYGIENE AND FOOD SAFETY 1042 US MILK HYGIENE AND FOOD SAFETY STANDARDS 1043 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON FOOD HYGIENE AND SAFETY – CODEX ALIMENTARIUS 105 MYCOTOXINS 1051 AFLATOXINS 1052 OTHER MYCOTOXINS 1053 AFLATOXINS M1 AND B1 AND THEIR REGULATORY PROVISIONS 1054 EU LEGISLATIONS ON AFLATOXINS IN MILK, MILK PRODUCTS AND ANIMAL FEED 1055 REGULATIONS OF AFLATOXINS OF IMPORTANCE IN MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN THE USA 1056 REGULATIONS OF AFLATOXINS OF IMPORTANCE IN MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS IN CANADA 1057 REGULATION OF AFLATOXINS IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND 1058 MERCOSUR STANDARD ON AFLATOXINS 106 CONCLUSIONS