REMOTE SENSING IN FOREST HEALTH PROTECTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION 11 REMOTE SENSING DEFINED 12 WHY IS REMOTE SENSING OF INTEREST IN FOREST HEALTH PROTECTION? 13 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THIS PUBLICATION 2 SOME BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING 21 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM 22 COLOR 23 SPECTRAL SIGNATURES 24 ANALOG VERSUS DIGITAL DATA 25 PASSIVE AND ACTIVE REMOTE SENSING SYSTEMS 26 RESOLUTION 261 SPATIAL RESOLUTION 262 TEMPORAL RESOLUTION 263 SPECTRAL RANGE AND RESOLUTION 264 RADIOMETRIC RESOLUTION 265 IS THERE AN IDEAL SENSOR? 27 RELATED OR SUPPORTING TECHNOLOGIES 271 NAVIGATION AIDS 272 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS 3 SIGNATURES 31 WHAT IS A SIGNATURE? 32 VEGETATION TYPES AND TREE SPECIES 321 CROWN CHARACTERISTICS 322 ANCILLARY INFORMATION 323 SOURCES OF ERROR 324 STAND CHARACTERISTICS 33 FOREST DAMAGE 331 THE NATURE OF FOREST DAMAGE 332 TREE MORTALITY 333 FOLIAR INJURY 334 DIEBACKS AND DECLINES 335 CLIMATIC EVENTS 336 PARASITIC PLANTS 34 NOXIOUS WEEDS 4 MISSION PLANNING, DATA COLLECTION AND ACCURACY ASSESSMENT 41 MISSION PLANNING 411 OBJECTIVES AND DATA REQUIREMENTS 412 BIOWINDOWS 413 WEATHER CONSIDERATIONS 414 CLASSIFICATION STANDARDS 415 AREA COVERAGE 42 DATA COLLECTION 421 OBSERVATION OR IMAGE INTERPRETATION 422 IMAGE PROCESSING 423 CHANGE DETECTION 424 IMAGE ANALYSIS SOFTWARE 43 ACCURACY ASSESSMENT 431 TYPES OF ERRORS IN REMOTE SENSING 432 THE ERROR MATRIX 433 THE KAPPA STATISTIC 434 THE KAPPA ANALYSIS 5 AERIAL SKETCHMAPPING 51 OVERVIEW 52 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 53 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES 54 USES OF AERIAL SKETCHMAP DATA 541 CURRENT STATUS OF MAJOR PESTS 542 HISTORICAL RECORDS OF PEST OCCURRENCE 543 PLANNING AND EVALUATION OF SUPPRESSION PROJECTS 55 SKILLS AND QUALIFICATIONS OF AERIAL OBSERVERS 56 EQUIPMENT 561 AIRCRAFT 562 MAPS 563 OTHER EQUIPMENT 57 PLANNING AND EXECUTING AERIAL SKETCHMAP SURVEYS 571 OBSERVATION LIMITS 572 BIOWINDOWS 573 NUMBER OF OBSERVERS 574 FLIGHT PATTERNS 575 DATA RECORDING 576 GROUND CHECKING 58 END PRODUCTS OF AERIAL SKETCHMAP SURVEYS 59 SAFETY 510 ELECTRONIC ENHANCEMENTS TO AERIAL SKETCHMAP SURVEYS 511 QUALITY ASSESSMENT AND QUALITY CONTROL 6 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY–PRINCIPLES AND PARAMETERS 61 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES 62 DEFINITION OF SOME KEY TERMS 63 FORMATS 631 NINE-INCH MAPPING FORMAT 632 SMALL-FORMAT PHOTOGRAPHY 633 LARGE-FORMAT PHOTOGRAPHY 64 LENSES 65 SCALE 651 DETERMINING THE SCALE OF AN AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH 652 PHOTOGRAPHIC SCALES COMMONLY USED IN FOREST HEALTH PROTECTION 66 FILMS 661 PANCHROMATIC FILMS 662 COLOR FILMS 663 COLOR INFRARED FILM 664 COLOR VERSUS COLOR INFRARED FILM 67 FILTERS 68 PHOTOGRAPHY MISSION PLANNING 681 SAMPLING WITH AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS 682 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY OF SMALL BLOCKS 69 PHOTOINTERPRETATION 691 PHOTOINTERPRETATION STANDARDS 692 PHOTOINTERPRETATION AIDS 610 ANALYSIS OF DATA FROM AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC SURVEYS 6101 DOUBLE SAMPLING WITH REGRESSION 6102 PROBABILITY PROPORTIONAL TO SIZE SAMPLING 7 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY–APPLICATIONS 71 INVENTORIES 711 BARK BEETLES 712 FOREST DECLINE 713 ROOT DISEASE 714 DWARF MISTLETOE 715 SPRUCE BUDWORM 72 DAMAGE MAPPING 721 INSECT DEFOLIATION OF BROADLEAF FORESTS 722 SPRUCE-FIR MORTALITY–NORTHEASTERN US 723 ICE STORM DAMAGE–NORTHEASTERN US 724 OAK WILT–CENTRAL TEXAS 73 ASSESSMENT OF TREATMENT EFFECTS 731 FOLIAGE PROTECTION 732 SILVICULTURAL TREATMENTS 74 OTHER APPLICATIONS 741 FOREST HEALTH ASSESSMENT–VERMONT 742 STAND HAZARD RATINGS FOR DOUGLAS-FIR TUSSOCK MOTH–OREGON 743 BARK BEETLE SALVAGE SALES–CALIFORNIA 744 MAPPING PORT-ORFORD CEDAR–NORTHERN CALIFORNIA AND SOUTHERN OREGON 745 MAPPING CHEMICAL INJURY–BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA 746 MAPPING AN EXOTIC PLANT IN THE FLORIDA EVERGLADES 8 AIRBORNE VIDEO AND DIGITAL CAMERA SYSTEMS 81 AIRBORNE VIDEOGRAPHY 811 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES 812 EARLY EVALUATIONS FOR FOREST HEALTH PROTECTION 813 USDA FOREST SERVICE SUPER-VHS CAMERA SYSTEM 814 MISSION PLANNING 815 IMAGE INTERPRETATION AND PROCESSING 816 APPLICATIONS 82 DIGITAL CAMERAS 821 KODAK PROFESSIONAL DCS 420 CIR DIGITAL CAMERA 822 KODAK DCS 460 DIGITAL CAMERA 823 IMAGE PROCESSING 9 SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING 91 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES 92 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME EARTH-ORBITING SATELLITES 921 ADVANCED VERY HIGH RESOLUTION RADIOMETER (AVHRR) 922 LANDSAT 923 SYSTÈME POUR L’OBSERVATION DE LA TERRE 924 INDIAN REMOTE SENSING 925 RADARSAT 926 EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY SATELLITES 927 JAPANESE EARTH RESOURCES SATELLITE 928 IKONOS 93 PROBABILITY OF DATA CAPTURE 94 APPLICATIONS 941 DETECTION OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE FUME DAMAGE TO FORESTS 942 GYPSY MOTH DEFOLIATION MAPPING 943 MAPPING CUMULATIVE MORTALITY CAUSED BY MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE 944 CHANGE DETECTION–CALIFORNIA 945 SUBPIXEL ANALYSIS FOR DETECTION OF SPRUCE BEETLE DAMAGE 946 MAPPING HURRICANE IMPACT AND RECOVERY 947 MAPPING BLOWDOWN WITH RADARSAT 10 SOME INTERNATIONAL APPLICATIONS 101 JARRAH DIEBACK - AUSTRALIA 102 EUROPEAN WOOD WASP - BRAZIL 1021 DIGITAL CAMERA SYSTEM 1022 AERIAL SKETCHMAPPING 103 IMPROVED FOREST PEST DETECTION AND MONITORING–CHINA 1031 AERIAL SKETCHMAPPING 1032 AIRBORNE VIDEOGRAPHY 1033 DIGITAL CAMERA SYSTEM 104 FOREST DECLINE–GERMANY 105 CYPRESS APHID–KENYA 106 OZONE DAMAGE TO FORESTS–MEXICO 107 DECLINE OF RIVERINE FORESTS–SUDAN 11 CONCLUSIONS 12 REFERENCES