PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PRESERVATION
CONTENTS 1 THERMODYNAMICS I INTRODUCTION II THERMODYNAMIC FUNDAMENTALS A DE?NITION OF SYSTEMS B FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS C SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS D THERMODYNAMIC POTENTIAL: GIBBS FREE ENERGY III SOLUTION PROPERTIES A PARTIAL MOLAR QUANTITIES B CHEMICAL POTENTIAL C IDEAL MIXTURES D NONIDEAL MIXTURES IV PHASE EQUILIBRIA A LIQUID–VAPOR EQUILIBRIA B SOLID–LIQUID EQUILIBRIA C SOLID–VAPOR EQUILIBRIA D PHASE RULE E PRESSURE-COMPOSITION DIAGRAM V COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES A VAPOR PRESSURE LOWERING B BOILING POINT ELEVATION C FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION D OSMOTIC PRESSURE SYMBOLS REFERENCES 2 REACTION KINETICS II GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS A CONCEPT OF RATE-LIMITING STEP B BASIC CHEMICAL KINETICS C ORDER OF REACTION III FIRST-ORDER RATE PROCESSES IV DETERMINING KINETIC PARAMETERS A GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS B DIFFERENTIAL METHODS C INTEGRAL METHODS D ACCURACY OF RATE CONSTANTS V TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF REACTION KINETICS A ARRHENIUS MODEL B THERMAL DEATH TIME MODEL C Q10 MODEL VI KINETIC PARAMETER VALUES IMPORTANT IN FOOD PROCESSING VII ENZYME-CATALYZED REACTIONS A INTRODUCTION B MICHAELIS–MENTEN ANALYSIS VIII SUMMARY 3 HEAT TRANSFER IN FOOD II MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER A CONDUCTION B CONVECTION C RADIATION D DIELECTRIC AND MICROWAVE HEATING III STEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER A CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER IN SERIES B CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER COEF?CIENT C FREE OR NATURAL CONVECTION D FORCED CONVECTION IV UNSTEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER A GENERAL PRINCIPLES B UNACCOMPLISHED TEMPERATURE CHANGE C GENERALIZED SOLUTION FOR UNSTEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER D NEGLIGIBLE INTERNAL RESISTANCE TO HEAT TRANSFER (WELL-MIXED FLUID) (BI , 0 1) E FINITE INTERNAL RESISTANCE TO HEAT TRANSFER (BI 0 1) F EXAMPLE G FINITE OBJECTS H OTHER CONDITIONS 4 MASS TRANSFER IN FOOD PRESERVATION PROCESSES II PHASE EQUILIBRIA A THE PHASE RULE B GAS–LIQUID EQUILIBRIA C SOLUTIONS D REPRESENTATION OF EQUILIBRIUM RELATIONSHIPS FOR BINARY SYSTEMS WITH TWO VOLATILE COMPONENTS E COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES RELATED TO VAPOR PRESSURE F LIQUID–LIQUID EQUILIBRIA G GAS–SOLID EQUILIBRIA III MASS TRANSFER BETWEEN PHASES A INTERFACE BETWEEN PHASES B DIFFUSION WITHIN A HOMOGENEOUS PHASE C NONIDEAL DIFFUSION BEHAVIOR D FILM COEF?CIENTS FOR MASS TRANSFER E TRANSPORT IN POROUS SOLIDS F SIMULTANEOUS HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER 5 WATER ACTIVITY AND FOOD PRESERVATION II WATER ACTIVITY III SORPTION OF WATER BY FOODS IV INDICATORS OF THE STATE OF WATER IN FOODS V CAUSES OF WATER VAPOR DEPRESSION IN FOODS VI SORPTION HYSTERESIS VII WATER ACTIVITY OF MIXTURES VIII WATER AND GLASS TRANSITIONS IN FOOD MATERIALS IX OVERVIEW OF EFFECTS OF WATER ACTIVITY ON SHELF LIFE OF FOODS X WATER ACTIVITY AND PHYSICAL CHANGES IN FOODS XI EFFECTS OF WATER ON MICROBIAL GROWTH XII WATER AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN FOODS 6 HEAT PROCESSING II APPLICATION OF HEAT ENERGY TO FOODS A COOKING B BLANCHING C PASTEURIZATION D STERILIZATION III INTERACTION OF HEAT ENERGY AND FOOD COMPONENTS B REACTION KINETICS C TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE ON KINETICS D THERMAL DESTRUCTION OF MICROORGANISMS E THERMAL DESTRUCTION OF ENZYMES F THERMAL DESTRUCTION OF NUTRIENTS AND QUALITY FACTORS IV HEAT PENETRATION INTO FOODS B DETERMINATION OF TIME–TEMPERATURE PRO?LE FOR THERMAL PROCESS CALCULATIONS C EVALUATION OF HEAT PENETRATION DATA V METHODS OF DETERMINING LETHALITY OF THERMAL PROCESSES B IMPROVED GENERAL METHOD C FORMULA METHOD D ASEPTIC PROCESSING VI PROCESS APPLICATION A OPTIMIZATION OF THERMAL PROCESSES FOR NUTRIENT RETENTION B PROCESS EQUIPMENT 7 STORAGE AT CHILLING TEMPERATURES II CONSIDERATIONS A NORMAL BEHAVIOR OF FOOD STORED AT CHILLING TEMPERATURES B CAUSES OF QUALITY LOSS C TEMPERATURE D RELATIVE HUMIDITY E AIR CIRCULATION AND PURI?CATION F ADJUNCTS TO CHILLING TEMPERATURE G SUMMARY OF PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS THAT IN?UENCE CONDITIONS SELECTED FOR CHILLING STORAGE III APPLICATIONS AND PROCEDURES A PRECOOLING B CONDITIONS RECOMMENDED FOR STORAGE OF FOOD IN ORDINARY AIR AT CHILLING TEMPERATURES C CONDITIONS RECOMMENDED FOR STORAGE OF FOOD IN CHILLED ATMOSPHERES OF MODI?ED COMPOSITION D HANDLING OF FOOD FOLLOWING REMOVAL FROM CHILLING STORAGE 8 FREEZING A OBJECTIVES OF FREEZING OF FOODS B SIZE OF THE FOOD INDUSTRY II PHYSICOCHEMICAL PRINCIPLES OF THE FREEZING PROCESS B WATER AND ICE C NUCLEATION IN PURE WATER D FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION IN SOLUTIONS, BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS, AND FOODS E CRYSTAL GROWTH F RECRYSTALLIZATION III GLASSY STATE AND PRESERVATION BY FREEZING IV BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF FREEZING A CRYOPRESERVATION OF CELLS AND OTHER BIOMATERIALS B BIOLOGICAL ICE NUCLEATION C ANTIFREEZE PROTEINS V FREEZING TECHNOLOGY A AIR FREEZERS B INDIRECT CONTACT FREEZERS C IMMERSION FREEZING D CRYOGENIC FREEZING E HIGH PRESSURE APPLICATIONS IN FREEZING TECHNOLOGY VI DESIGN CALCULATIONS A HEAT TO BE REMOVED B CALCULATION OF FREEZING TIME C ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES VII EFFECTS OF FREEZING, STORAGE, AND THAWING ON FOOD PROPERTIES A EFFECTS OF FREEZING B EFFECTS OF STORAGE IN THE FROZEN STATE C EFFECTS OF THAWING 9 CONCENTRATION II EVAPORATION A PRINCIPLES OF EVAPORATOR OPERATION B BOILING POINT ESTIMATION C FOOD PROPERTIES AND EVAPORATOR PERFORMANCE D TYPES OF EVAPORATORS E EVAPORATION WITH FEED PREHEATING F MULTIPLE-EFFECT EVAPORATORS G EVAPORATORS WITH VAPOR RECOMPRESSION H PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF EQUIPMENT USED IN EVAPORATORS I EXAMPLES OF EVAPORATOR SYSTEMS IN INDUSTRY III FREEZE CONCENTRATION B PRINCIPLE OF THE PROCESS C FREEZE CONCENTRATION AND FREEZE DESALINATION D PRINCIPLES OF EQUIPMENT USED IN FREEZE CONCENTRATION E NORMAL FREEZING F PROBLEMS CAUSED BY PRECIPITATION OF SOLIDS OTHER THAN ICE G CONCENTRATION BY GAS HYDRATE FORMATION H APPLICATIONS IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY IV MEMBRANE PROCESSES FOR CONCENTRATION B DRIVING FORCES FOR MEMBRANE PROCESSES C MEMBRANES D REVERSE OSMOSIS E APPLICATIONS OF REVERSE OSMOSIS F ULTRA?LTRATION G ELECTROOSMOSIS H THERMOOSMOSIS AND PERVAPORATION V COST OF FOOD CONCENTRATION 10 DEHYDRATION II PRINCIPLES OF DEHYDRATION PROCESSES B EQUILIBRIUM RELATIONS IN AIR–WATER MIXTURES C HUMIDITY CHARTS D ENERGY AND MATERIAL BALANCE ON AN AIR DRYER E TRANSPORT OF WATER IN FOODS III AIR-DRYING OF A SLAB UNDER CONSTANT CONDITIONS A IDEALIZED MECHANISMS OF DRYING OF A SLAB B CALCULATION OF DRYING RATES USING EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS C CHARACTERISTICS AND SIGNI?CANCE OF THE SLAB MODEL D SHRINKAGE DURING DRYING IV DRYING TECHNOLOGY B CLASSI?CATION OF DRYING PROCESSES C CONVECTIVE DRYERS D FLASH DRYERS AND FLUIDIZED BED DRYERS E SPRAY DRYING F DRUM DRYERS G INFRARED AND SOLAR DRYERS V FREEZE-DRYING B HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN FREEZE-DRYING VI QUALITY ASPECTS OF DEHYDRATED MATERIALS A CHANGES DUE TO CHEMICAL REACTIONS OCCURRING DURING DRYING B RETENTION OF VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS—FLAVOR COMPOUNDS 11 NONTHERMAL METHODS I NONTHERMAL PHYSICAL PROCESSES FOR FOOD PRESERVATION II RADIATION PRESERVATION OF FOODS B PROPERTIES OF IONIZING RADIATIONS C DOSIMETRY OF IONIZING RADIATIONS D CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATIONS E EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON LIVING ORGANISMS F TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF FOOD IRRADIATION G ORGANOLEPTIC ACCEPTABILITY AND SAFETY OF IRRADIATED FOODS H STATUS OF COMMERCIAL APPLICATION OF FOOD IRRADIATION III HIGH-PRESSURE PROCESSING A PRINCIPLES B PHYSICOCHEMICAL EFFECTS OF PRESSURE C EFFECTS OF HIGH PRESSURE ON LIVING SYSTEMS D TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF HPP IV HIGH-INTENSITY PULSED ELECTRIC FIELDS (PEF) B EFFECTS OF PEF ON MICROORGANISMS C APPLICATIONS TO FOOD PRODUCTS V HIGH-VOLTAGE ARC DISCHARGE VI ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT A EFFECTS OF ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT ON BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS B APPLICATIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS IN PROCESS CONTROL AND VALIDATION VII PULSED-LIGHT TECHNOLOGY VIII OSCILLATING MAGNETIC FIELDS (OMF) IX ULTRASOUND A APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASOUND IN FOOD TECHNOLOGY B MECHANISM OF INACTIVATION OF MICROORGANISMS BY ULTRASOUND C APPLICATION OF ULTRASOUND IN COMBINATION WITH HEATING X STATUS AND PROSPECTS OF NONTHERMAL FOOD PRESERVATION PROCESSES 12 PROTECTIVE PACKAGING I PROTECTION OF PRODUCT AS A MAJOR FUNCTION OF PACKAGING A FUNCTIONS OF PACKAGING B PROTECTIVE PACKAGING II NATURE OF PACKAGING MATERIALS A GLASS B METALS C PAPER D PLASTICS E BIODEGRADABLE AND EDIBLE FILMS AND COATINGS F COMBINATIONS III EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENT ON FOOD STABILITY AND THE NEED FOR PROTECTIVE PACKAGING A LIGHT B OXYGEN C WATER D TEMPERATURE E SENSITIVITY TO MECHANICAL DAMAGE F SENSITIVITY TO ATTACK BY BIOLOGICAL AGENTS IV PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS THAT DETERMINE THE DEGREE OF PROTECTION AGAINST ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS A LIGHT-PROTECTION CHARACTERISTICS B PERMEABILITY TO GASES AND VAPORS C TEMPERATURE CONTROL BY PACKAGING D CONTROL OF BIOLOGICAL ATTACK BY PACKAGING E PROTECTION FROM MECHANICAL DAMAGE V CALCULATION OF SHELF LIFE AND OF REQUIREMENTS FOR PACKAGING A GENERAL APPROACH B ANALYSIS OF STORAGE REQUIREMENT OF MOISTURE-SENSITIVE FOODS C ACCELERATED STORAGE STABILITY TESTING D PACKAGING REQUIREMENTS OF FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES E OXYGEN-SENSITIVE FOODS VI INTERACTION BETWEEN PRODUCT AND PACKAGE A EXTRACTION OF PACKAGING MATERIAL COMPONENTS B ACTIVE PACKAGING