PLANTS AT THE MARGIN
CONTENTS PART I THE NATURE OF MARGINAL AREAS RECOGNIZING MARGINS DE?NING MARGINS MARGINS AND CLIMATE CHANGE LIMITS TO DISTRIBUTION PHYSIOLOGICAL BOUNDARIES RESOURCE AVAILABILITY RESOURCE ACCESS AND CONSERVATION IN MARGINAL AREAS GENETIC BOUNDARIES DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS LIMITS FOR REPRODUCTION RELICT SPECIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE EVOLUTIONARY RELICTS CLIMATIC RELICTS ENDANGERED SPECIES AGRICULTURAL MARGINS CONCLUSIONS BIODIVERSITY IN MARGINAL AREAS BIODIVERSITY AT THE PERIPHERY ASSESSING BIODIVERSITY DE?NITIONS OF BIODIVERSITY PROBLEMS OF SCALE AND CLASSI?CATION VARIATIONS IN ASSESSING GENETIC VARIATION VARIATION IN PERIPHERAL AREAS DISTURBANCE AND BIODIVERSITY GRAZING FIRE THE GEOGRAPHY OF MARGINAL PLANT BIODIVERSITY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CAPE ?ORA MEDITERRANEAN HEATHLANDS MEDITERRANEAN-TYPE VEGETATION WORLDWIDE THE BRAZILIAN CERRADO PLANT DIVERSITY IN DRYLANDS PLANT DIVERSITY IN THE ARCTIC PART II PLANT FUNCTION IN MARGINAL AREAS RESOURCE ACQUISITION IN MARGINAL HABITATS RESOURCE NECESSITIES IN NON-PRODUCTIVE HABITATS ADAPTATION TO HABITATS WITH LIMITED RESOURCES CAPACITY ADAPTATION FUNCTIONAL ADJUSTMENT ADVERSE ASPECTS OF CAPACITY ADAPTATION CLIMATIC WARMING AND THE VULNERABILITY OF SPECI?C TISSUES HABITAT PRODUCTIVITY AND COMPETITION PLANT FUNCTIONAL TYPES LIFE HISTORY STRATEGIES TWO-CLASS LIFE STRATEGIES THREE-CLASS LIFE STRATEGIES FOUR-CLASS LIFE STRATEGIES RESOURCE ALLOCATION RESOURCE ACQUISITION IN MARGINAL AREAS COMPETITION FOR RESOURCES IN MARGINAL AREAS DEPRIVATION INDIFFERENCE DEPRIVATION INDIFFERENCE THROUGH ANOXIA TOLERANCE AVOIDERS AND TOLERATORS ALTERNATIVE SUPPLIES OF RESOURCES LIGHT PRECIPITATION GROUND WATER CARBON NITROGEN PHOSPHATE PHOSPHATE AVAILABILITY AT HIGH LATITUDES MYCORRHIZAL ASSOCIATIONS IN NUTRIENT-POOR HABITATS MYCORRHIZAL ASSOCIATIONS IN THE ARCTIC CLUSTER ROOTS NUTRIENT RETENTION IN MARGINAL AREAS 3 10 CHANGES IN RESOURCE AVAILABILITY IN THE ARCTIC AS A RESULT OF CLIMATIC WARMING REPRODUCTION AT THE PERIPHERY ENVIRONMENTAL LIMITS TO REPRODUCTION SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN MARGINAL HABITATS PRE-ZYGOTIC AND POST-ZYGOTIC LIMITATIONS TO SEED PRODUCTION GERMINATION AND ESTABLISHMENT IN MARGINAL AREAS PHENOLOGY REPRODUCTION IN ?OOD-PRONE TROPICAL LAKE AND RIVER MARGINS HYBRID ZONES TRANSIENT AND STABLE HYBRIDS HYBRID SWARMS SPARTINA ANGLICA – COMMON CORD GRASS SENECIO SQUALIDUS – THE OXFORD RAGWORT GENETIC INVASION IN MARGINAL AREAS INVASION AND CLIMATIC WARMING CLIMATIC WARMING, DISTURBANCE AND INVASION THEORIES ON HABITAT LIABILITY TO INVASION REPRODUCTION IN HOT DESERTS DIVERSITY OF PLANT FORM IN DROUGHT-PRONE HABITATS DESERT SEED SURVIVAL STRATEGIES FLOWERING IN ARCTIC AND ALPINE HABITATS ANNUAL ARCTIC PLANTS MAST SEEDING 4 10 THE SEED BANK 4 10 1 POLAR SEED BANKS 4 10 2 WARM DESERT SEED BANKS 4 11 BIASED SEX RATIOS 4 12 CLONAL GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION IN MARGINAL HABITATS 4 12 1 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION 4 13 LONGEVITY AND PERSISTENCE IN MARGINAL HABITATS 4 14 CONCLUSIONS PART III MARGINAL HABITATS – SELECTED CASE HISTORIES ARCTIC AND SUBARCTIC TREELINES AND THE TUNDRA–TAIGA INTERFACE THE TUNDRA–TAIGA INTERFACE MIGRATIONAL HISTORY OF THE TUNDRA–TAIGA INTERFACE CLIMATIC LIMITS OF THE BOREAL FOREST RELATING DISTRIBUTION TO TEMPERATURE KRUMMHOLZ AND TREELINE ADVANCE CLIMATIC CHANGE AND FOREST MIGRATION BOREAL MIGRATIONAL HISTORY FIRE, AND PALUDI?CATION AT THE TUNDRA–TAIGA INTERFACE POST-?RE HABITAT DEGRADATION TREELINES AND PALUDI?CATION HISTORY OF PALUDI?CATION BOG VERSUS FOREST AT THE TUNDRA–TAIGA INTERFACE HOMEOSTASIS AND TREELINE STABILITY BOREAL FOREST PRODUCTIVITY AT HIGH LATITUDES PHYSIOLOGICAL LIMITS FOR TREE SURVIVAL AT THE TUNDRA–TAIGA INTERFACE CARBON BALANCE CARBON BALANCE VERSUS TISSUE VULNERABILITY AT THE TREELINE WINTER DESICCATION INJURY OVERWINTERING PHOTOSYNTHETIC ACTIVITY FUTURE TRENDS AT THE TUNDRA–TAIGA INTERFACE PLANT SURVIVAL IN A WARMER ARCTIC DE?NING THE ARCTIC SIGNS OF CHANGE THE ARCTIC AS A MARGINAL AREA MAPPING ARCTIC MARGINS PLEISTOCENE HISTORY OF THE ARCTIC ?ORA REASSESSMENT OF ICE COVER IN POLAR REGIONS MOLECULAR EVIDENCE FOR THE EXISTENCE OF GLACIAL REFUGIA AT HIGH LATITUDES EVIDENCE FOR AN ANCIENT (AUTOCHTHONOUS) ARCTIC ?ORA HABITAT PREFERENCES IN HIGH ARCTIC PLANT COMMUNITIES INCOMPATIBLE SURVIVAL STRATEGIES ICE ENCASEMENT AND THE PROLONGED IMPOSITION OF ANOXIA MUTUALISM IN ARCTIC SUBSPECIES POLYPLOIDY AT HIGH LATITUDES ARCTIC OASES PHENOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO INCREASED TEMPERATURES 6 10 CONCLUSIONS LAND PLANTS AT COASTAL MARGINS CHALLENGES OF THE MARITIME ENVIRONMENT THE CONCEPT OF OCEANICITY PHYSICAL VERSUS BIOLOGICAL FRAGILITY NORTHERN HEMISPHERE COASTAL VEGETATION FORESHORE PLANT COMMUNITIES DUNE SYSTEMS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC ARCTIC SHORES SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE SHORES ANTARCTIC SHORES NEW ZEALAND GLOBAL SHORE COMMUNITIES SALT MARSHES AND MUD?ATS RISING SEA LEVELS AND MUD?ATS HARD SHORES CLIFFS AND CAVES NORTH ATLANTIC CLIFFS TREES BY THE SEA MANGROVE SWAMPS PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS IN COASTAL VEGETATION DROUGHT TOLERANCE NITROGEN ?XATION SURVIVING BURIAL FLOODING CONSERVATION VERSUS CYCLICAL DESTRUCTION AND REGENERATION IN COASTAL HABITATS SURVIVAL AT THE WATER’S EDGE FLOODING ENDURANCE LIFE-FORM AND ?OODING TOLERANCE SEASONAL RESPONSES TO ?OODING AERATION RADIAL OXYGEN LOSS THERMO-OSMOSIS RESPONSES TO LONG-TERM WINTER ?OODING SURVIVING LONG-TERM OXYGEN DEPRIVATION FLOODING AND UN?OODING UN?OODING – THE POST-ANOXIC EXPERIENCE RESPONSES TO SHORT-TERM ?OODING DURING THE GROWING SEASON DISADVANTAGES OF ?OODING TOLERANCE AMPHIBIOUS PLANT ADAPTATIONS PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY IN AMPHIBIOUS SPECIES SPECIATION AND POPULATION ZONATION IN RELATION TO ?OODING AQUATIC GRAMINOIDS GLYCERIA MAXIMA VERSUS FILIPENDULA ULMARIA SWEET ?AG (ACORUS CALAMUS) REED SWEET GRASS (GLYCERIA MAXIMA) THE COMMON REED (PHRAGMITES AUSTRALIS) AMPHIBIOUS TREES TROPICAL VERSUS TEMPERATE TREES IN WETLAND SITES CONCLUSIONS – PLANTS WITH WET FEET WOODY PLANTS AT THE MARGIN WOODY PLANTS BEYOND THE TREELINE WOODY PLANTS OF THE TUNDRA MONTANE AND ARCTIC WILLOWS MOUNTAIN BIRCHES BIOGEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF MOUNTAIN BIRCH CURRENT MIGRATION DWARF BIRCHES BETULA NANA AND B GLANDULOSA BIOGEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF DWARF BIRCH ECOLOGICAL SENSITIVITY OF WOODY PLANTS TO OCEANIC CONDITIONS JUNIPER HEATHLANDS RELATING HEATHLANDS TO CLIMATE POSSIBLE MIGRATION BEHAVIOUR HISTORICAL ECOLOGY OF HEATHLANDS NEW ZEALAND: A HYPEROCEANIC CASE STUDY 9 10 CONCLUSIONS PLANTS AT HIGH ALTITUDES 10 1 ALTITUDINAL LIMITS TO PLANT SURVIVAL 10 2 MOUNTAINTOP ISOLATION 10 2 1 INSELBERGS – ISOLATED MOUNTAINS 10 2 2 AFRICAN INSELBERGS 10 3 ASPECTS OF HIGH-ALTITUDE HABITATS 10 3 1 GEOLOGY AND MOUNTAIN ?ORAS 10 3 2 ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE 10 3 3 MOUNTAIN TOPOGRAPHY AND BIODIVERSITY CONTENTS 10 4 PHYSIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR PLANT SURVIVAL ON HIGH MOUNTAINS 10 4 1 WATER AVAILABILITY AT HIGH ALTITUDES 10 4 2 ADAPTING TO ?UCTUATING TEMPERATURES 10 4 3 PROTECTION AGAINST HIGH LEVELS OF RADIATION AT HIGH ALTITUDES AND LATITUDE 10 4 4 EFFECT OF UV RADIATION ON ALPINE VEGETATION 10 4 5 OCEANIC MOUNTAIN ENVIRONMENTS 10 4 6 PHENOLOGICAL RESPONSES OF MOUNTAIN PLANTS 10 5 ALPINE VEGETATION ZONATION – CASE STUDIES 10 5 1 TEMPERATE AND BOREAL ALPINE ZONATION 10 5 2 TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL MOUNTAINS – EAST AFRICA 10 5 3 SOUTH AMERICA 10 6 THE WORLD’S HIGHEST FORESTS 10 6 1 THE PERUVIAN HIGHLANDS 10 7 HIGH MOUNTAIN PLANTS AND CLIMATE CHANGE 10 7 1 INDIRECT EFFECTS OF INCREASED TEMPERATURE ON ALPINE VEGETATION – REDUCTION IN WINTER SNOW COVER 10 7 2 EFFECTS OF INCREASED ATMOSPHERIC CO2 ON HIGH MOUNTAIN VEGETATION 10 8 ALPINE ?ORAL BIOLOGY 10 9 CONCLUSIONS MAN AT THE MARGINS 11 1 HUMAN SETTLEMENT IN PERIPHERAL AREAS 11 2 PAST AND PRESENT CONCEPTS OF MARGINALITY 11 2 1 AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY IN MARGINAL AREAS 11 3 MAN IN THE TERRESTRIAL ARCTIC 11 3 1 ACQUISITION OF NATURAL RESOURCES AT HIGH LATITUDES 11 3 2 FUTURE PROSPECTS FOR THE TUNDRA AND ITS NATIVE PEOPLES 11 4 MAN ON COASTAL MARGINS 11 4 1 HUMAN ACCELERATION OF SOIL IMPOVERISHMENT IN OCEANIC REGIONS 11 4 2 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN OCEANIC CLIMATES: ORKNEY – AN OCEANIC EXCEPTION 11 5 EXPLOITING THE WETLANDS 11 5 1 COASTAL WETLANDS 11 5 2 HUMAN SETTLEMENT IN REED BEDS 11 5 3 AGRICULTURAL USES OF WETLANDS 11 5 4 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN BOG CULTIVATION 11 5 5 FUTURE USES FOR WETLANDS 11 6 MAN IN THE MOUNTAINS 11 6 1 TRANSHUMANCE 11 6 2 TERRACE FARMING 11 7 CONCLUSIONS SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 12 1 SIGNS OF CHANGE 12 2 VEGETATION RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE 12 3 PRE-ADAPTATION OF PLANTS IN MARGINAL AREAS TO CLIMATIC CHANGE 12 4 PHYSICAL FRAGILITY VERSUS BIOLOGICAL STABILITY AND DIVERSITY 12 5 MARGINAL AREAS AND CONSERVATION 12 5 1 REGENERATION AND THE ROLE OF MARGINS 12 6 FUTURE PROSPECTS FOR MARGINAL AREAS REFERENCES