AN INTRODUCTION TO CYTOLOGY
1 STEM CELL Introduction 1 Properties 2 Self-Renewal 2 Potency Definition 3 Identification 4 Embryonic 4 Fetal 6 Adult 7 Amniotic 8 Induced Pluripotent 8 Lineage 9 Treatments 9 Disadvantages10 Research 10 Treatment 11 Plant Stem Cell 12 Research and Development 13 Plant stem cell vs Callus 14 Bioprocess Innovation 14 Further Applications 14 Stem cell controversy 15 Potential use in Therapy 15 Points of Controversy 16 Potential Solutions 16 Viewpoints 17 Stated views of Groups 21 2 INDUCED STEM CELLS Introduction 37 Natural Processes 38 Induced Totipotent Cells 40 SCNT-mediated 40 Obtained without SCNT 41 Rejuvenation to iPSc 41 Mogrify Algorithm 45 Chemical Inducement45 Differentiation from Induced Teratoma46 Differentiated Cell Types 47 Lung and Airway Epithelial Cells 47 Reproductive Cells 47 Induced progenitor Stem Cells 47 Lineage-Specific Enhancers 50 Reprogramming through a Physical Approach 51 Rejuvenation of the Muscle Stem Cell 55 Hepatocytes 56 Insulin-Producing Cells 56 Nephron Progenitors 57 Blood Vessel Cells 57 Blood Stem Cells 58 Platelets 59 Immune Cells 60 Thymic Epithelial Cells Rejuvenation 61 Mesenchymal Stem Cells 61 Dedifferentiated Adipocytes 61 Chondrogenic Cells 62 Sources of Cells for Reprogramming 62 Adult Stem Cell 63 Lineage 63 Multidrug Resistance 64 Signaling Pathways 64 Plasticity 64 Aging 64 Types 65 Olfactory Adult Stem Cells 66 Neural Crest Stem Cells 66 Testicular Cells 67 Adult stem cell therapies 67 Adult Stem Cells and Cancer 68 References 68 3 STEM-CELL THERAPY Introduction 97 Medical Uses 98 Research 98 Neurodegeneration 99 Brain and Spinal Cord Injury 99 Heart 99 Blood-cell Formation 100 Missing Teeth 101 Cochlear hair Cell Regrowth 101 Blindness and Vision Impairment 101 Pancreatic Beta Cells 102 Transplantation 102 Orthopaedics 103 Wound Healing 103 Infertility 103 HIV/AIDS 103 Clinical Trials 104 Cryopreserved Mesenchymal Stromal Cells (MSCs) 104 Veterinary Medicine 104 Development of Regenerative Treatment Models 104 Sources of Stem Cells 105 Stem Cells and Hard-tissue Repair106 Stem cells and Orthopedic Repairs106 Tendon Repair 106 Joint Repair 107 Bone Defect Repair 107 Stem cells and Muscle Repairs 108 Stem cells and Nervous System Repairs 108 Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca (KCS)108 Current Areas of Research 109 Stem cells and Conservation109 Future Clinical Uses 109 Embryonic Stem-Cell Controversy 110 Around the World 110 China 110 Middle East 110 Mexico 111 South Korea 111 Thailand 111 Ukraine 111 Other countries 111 References 111 4 CELL POTENCY Introduction 121 Totipotency 121 Pluripotency 122 Induced Pluripotency 123 Multipotency 124 Oligopotency 124 Unipotency 124 Cellular Differentiation 125 Mammalian Cell Types126 Dedifferentiation 127 Mechanisms 128 Progenitor Cell 135 Endothelial Stem Cell 137 Properties 138 Role in Formation of Vascular System 139 Role of insulin-like Growth factors in Endothelium Differentiation 139 Role in Recovery 140 Role in Cancer 141 Future Efforts 141 Mesenchymal stem cell 141 Sources 142 Characteristics 143 Culturing 144 Applications 144 Neural Stem Cell 146 Aging and Development 146 Potential Clinical Applications 148 Assays 150 Neural Stem Cell Institute 150 Hematopoietic Stem Cell 150 Functional Characteristics152 Stem Cell Heterogeneity 152 Physical Characteristics 154 Colony-forming units 156 HSC Repopulation Kinetics 157 DNA Damage and Aging 157 References 158 5 STEM CELL LAWS AND POLICY Introductrion 163 Science Background 163 Political Beginnings 164 Federal Law 164 State Law 166 Legalization and Funding 166 Bans and Restrictions166 Bans and Restrictions on Relevant Stem Cell/Cloning Controversies167 Policy Stances of Political Parties and Politicians 168 Timeline 170 Stem Cell Laws and Policy in China 117 Laws and Regulations 172 Cultural Views 173 References 173 6 CANCER AND STEM CELL Introduction 177 Tumor Propagation Models 178 The Cancer Stem Cell Model 173 Stochastic Model 179 Tying CSC and Stochastic Models Together 180 Debate 181 Evidence 182 Mechanistic and Mathematical Models 182 Origin 183 Hypotheses 183 Identification 184 Heterogeneity (Markers) 184 Metastasis 186 Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition 186 Two-phase Expression Pattern 186 Implications 187 Treatment 187 Targeting 188 BMI-1 188 Notch 189 Sonic hedgehog and Wnt 189 References 189 7 STEM CELL CONTROVERSY Introduction 201 Background 202 Potential use in Therapy 202 Points of Controversy 203 Potential Solutions 203 Viewpoints 204 Endorsement 205 Human potential and humanity 205 Efficiency 205 Superiority206 Individuality 206 Viability 207 Objection 207 Stated Views Of Groups 208 Government Policy Stances 208 United States 208 US Congressional Response 209 Funding 210 Asia 210 Religious views 210 Pentecostalism 211 Islam 211 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 211 Embryonic Stem Cell 211 Properties 212 Pluripotent 213 Utilizations 214 Potential Clinical Use 214 Human Embryonic Stem Cells as Models of Genetic Disorders 215 Adverse Effect 216 Techniques And Conditions For Derivation And Culture 219 Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells 220 Contamination by Reagents used in Cell Culture 221 Stem-Cell Line 221 Types and Methods of Derivation 221 Induced Pluripotent Stem-cell (iPSC) Line 232 Methods of Culture 232 Uses 233 Ethical Issues 233 Access to Human Embryonic stem-cell Lines 233 References 234 8 SPINAL CORD: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Introduction 229 Structure 230 Spinal Cord Segments 232 Development 235 Blood Supply 237 Function 237 Somatosensory Organization 237 Motor Organization 239 Spinocerebellar Tracts 240 Clinical Significance 240 Injury 241 Treatment 241 Lumbar Puncture 241 Tumours 242 Additional Images 242 References 248 9 EPIGENETICS IN STEM-CELL DIFFERENTIATION Introduction 251 Experimental Background 252 Effects of Global Histone Modifications During Embryonic Stem Cell Differentiation 252 DNA Methylation in Differentiated Versus Undifferentiated Cells 253 Epigenetic Modifications of Regulated Genes During ESC Differentiation 254 Effect of TSA on Stem Cell Differentiation 255 Alkaline Phosphatase Activity 255 The Future 256 Computational Epigenetics