PLANT PARASITIC NEMATODES: CYTOGENETICS AND PHYSIOLOGY
SECTION 1 - Nematodes in Biological Control 1 Biological control potentials of predatory nematodes 3 1 Introduction 3 2 Biological control attributes 5 21 Prey capturing and feeding abilities 6 22 Prey resistance and susceptibility to predation 9 23 Prey preference 9 24 Ecology 10 25 Culture 13 26 Conservation 15 3 Biological control potentials 15 31 Biocontrol potential of mononchs 16 32 Biocontrol potential of dorylaim and nygolaim predators 19 33 Biocontrol potential of diplogasterid predators 22 4 Future prospects 23 References 24 2 Integration of biological control with other methods of nematode management 29 1 Introduction 29 2 Methods to reduce nematode populations 31 21 Crop rotation 31 22 Antagonistic crops 33 23 Resistant cultivars 33 24 Soil solarization 35 25 Biofumigation 36 26 Nematicides 36 3 Methods to increase microbial abundance and/or activity 39 31 Organic amendments, green manures and companion crops 39 4 The combined use of biological control agents 42 5 Future approaches 42 51 Use of genes from natural enemies 42 52 Improved formulations and application methods 43 References 44 CONTENTS 3 Mode of action and interactions of nematophagous fungi 51 1 Introduction 51 2 Nematophagous fungi 52 21 Biology 52 22 Taxonomy and phylogeny 52 23 Fungal parasites of invertebrates 55 3 Mode of action 57 31 Recognition: chemotaxis and adhesion 57 32 Signalling and differentiation 60 33 Penetration of nematode cuticles and eggshells 60 34 Fungal pathogen genomics and proteomics 62 4 Soil and rhizosphere environment 63 41 Activities in soil 63 42 Nematophagous fungi as root endophytes 65 43 Rhizosphere dynamics and biocontrol 67 44 Root exudates 69 45 Detection and quantification 70 5 Nematophagous fungi and biocontrol 70 6 Conclusions 71 References 71 SECTION 2 - Crops Ecology and Control 4 Control and management of plant parasitic nematode communities in a soil conservation approach 79 1 Introduction 79 11 Soil fertility and plant-parasitic nematodes 79 12 Nematode specificities 80 2 Plant-nematode interactions 81 21 Host plants quality 81 22 Plant-nematode compatibility 84 23 Resistance to nematodes 84 3 Prey-predator interactions 86 31 Diversity of antagonists and parasitism 86 32 Nematode-antagonists specificity 87 33 Obligate multitrophic relationships 89 4 Ecology and management of nematode communities 89 41 Soil health approach 89 42 New paradigms for nematode management 90 43 Proposed approaches 92 5 Conclusions 93 References 94 99 1 Introduction 99 2 Andean tuber crops 100 21 Oca (Oxalis tuberosa Molina) 101 22 Mashwa or isaño, añu (Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruíz & Pavón) 101 23 Ullucu or papalisa, lisa (Ullucus tuberosus Lozano) 101 24 Andean grain crops 101 241 Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) 102 242 Lupine or tarwi (Lupinus mutabilis Sweet) 102 3 Most important nematodes in tuber and grain crops 103 31 Potato cyst nematodes 103 32 Potato rosary nematode 104 33 Nematodes of oca 105 4 Pathogenic relationships 108 5 Integrated management of tuber and grain nematodes 115 References 116 6 IPM of soybean cyst nematode in the USA 119 1 Introduction 119 2 Conclusions 125 References 125 7 The soybean cyst nematode Heterodera glycines Ichinohe, 1952 in Argentina 127 1 Introduction 127 2 Heterodera glycines 128 3 Life cycle 132 4 Populations and races 132 5 Host-nematode relationships 133 51 Histological alterations 133 52 Response of cultivars to the attack of SCN 137 53 Relationship of scn with the environment 139 6 Losses 139 7 Management 140 71 Early nematode detection 140 72 Identification of races 141 73 Chemical control 141 74 Crop rotation 141 75 Preventive measures against cyst dispersal 142 5 Management of nematodes of Andean tuber and grain crops 8 Conclusions 143 References 144 8 Nematode management in cotton 149 1 Introduction 149 2 Geographical distribution and economic impact 150 3 Symptomology 151 31 Meloidogyne spp 151 32 Rotylenchulus reniformis 152 33 Hoplolaimus columbus 153 34 Belonolaimus longicaudatus 153 4 Biology and epidemiology 153 41 Meloidogyne incognita and M acronea 153 411 Life cycle 153 412 Interactions 154 413 Genetic variability 155 42 Rotylenchulus reniformis 155 421 Life cycle 155 422 Interactions 156 423 Genetic variability 157 43 Hoplolaimus columbus 157 44 Belonolaimus longicaudatus 157 5 Management 157 51 Sampling and economic thresholds 157 511 Meloidogyne incognita 157 512 Rotylenchulus reniformis 159 513 Hoplolaimus columbus 159 514 Belonolaimus longicaudatus 159 52 Control 159 521 Natural physical factors 159 522 Nematicides 160 5221 Conventional nematicides 160 5222 Novel nematicides 162 5223 Yield potential recoverable with nematicides 162 523 Biological control 163 524 Cultural control 164 525 Crop Rotation 164 526 Sanitation/weed management 165 53 Genetic resistance to nematodes in cotton 166 531 Terminology 166 532 Resistance and tolerance mechanisms 167 533 Resistant and tolerant cultivars and resistance sources 167 5331 M incognita 167 5332 R reniformis 170 5333 H columbus and B longicaudatus 171 References 172 SECTION 3 - Technological Advances in Sustainable Management 9 The potential of RNA interference for the management of phytoparasitic nematodes 185 1 Introduction 185 2 Current control measures 186 21 Potential for biotechnological control of plant parasitic nematodes 187 22 The RNAi mechanism 187 3 The mechanism of RNAi in nematodes 188 31 Plant parasitic nematodes RNAi 190 311 Uptake of dsRNA 191 32 Comparative observation of reported strategies 192 33 Observation of phenotype 193 4 In planta delivery of dsRNA to target genes of plant parasitic nematodes 194 41 The feeding strategy of sedentary endoparasitic nematodes 195 42 In planta RNAi as a biotechnological strategy 197 43 Future prospects for RNAi-based control of plant parasitic nematodes 198 References 199 10 Potential use of Pasteuria spp in the management of plant parasitic nematodes 205 1 Introduction 205 2 Recognising Pasteuria 206 21 Life cycle and development 206 22 Morphology 207 23 Traditional and molecular taxonomy 208 24 DNA Approaches 209 25 Host range 210 3 Mass production 211 31 In vitro culture 211 32 In vivo culture 211 33 Distribution in natural systems 212 331 Finding Pasteuria 213 4 Pasteuria association with nematode suppressive soils 214 41 Biological and ecological features of Pasteuria penetrans 215 5 Conclusions 215 References 216 11 Sustainable methods for management of cyst nematodes 221 1 Introduction 221 2 Sugar beet cyst nematode in Northern Italy 222 3 Heterodera schachtii biocontrol in Northern Italy 223 31 Chemical and agronomic control 223 32 Biological control 225 321 Brassicaceae nematicidal intercrops 225 322 Application of Heterodera schachtii biocontrol in Northern Italy 226 323 Nematicidal plant species in Heterodera schachtii control 227 324 Management of nematicidal intercrops in Northern Italy 229 325 Promotion of Heterodera schachtii biocontrol in Northern Italy 231 326 Resistance and tolerance 232 4 Outlook of biocontrol in Northern Italy 233 References 235 12 - Biofumigation to manage plant-parasitic nematodes 239 1 Introduction 239 2 Brassica biofumigation mechanism 240 3 Studies involving nematodes 241 31 Root-knot nematodes 241 32 Other nematode groups 243 4 Non-brassica biofumigation 244 5 Conclusions and outlook 245 References 245 SECTION 4 - Data Analysis and Knowledge-based Applications 13 Global knowledge and its application for the integrated control and management of nematodes on wheat 251 1 Introduction 251 11 Importance of cereals and wheat in the world 251 2 Distribution of cereal nematodes, species and pathotypes 252 21 Cereal cyst nematode 252 22 Root lesion nematodes 255 23 Other cereal nematodes - root knot, stem and seed gall 255 24 Other nematodes 257 3 Life cycle, symptoms of damage and yield loss 258 31 Cereal cyst nematode 258 32 Root lesion nematodes 262 33 Other cereal nematodes - root knot, stem and seed gall 264 331 Root knot nematodes 264 332 Stem nematode 266 333 Gall nematode 267 4 Integrated control of cereal nematodes 269 41 Cereal cyst nematode 271 411 Chemical 271 412 Cultural practices 271 4121 Grass free rotations and fallowing with cultivation 271 4122 Irrigation 272 4123 Time of sowing 272 4124 Trap and mixed cropping 272 4125 Organic amendments and inorganic fertilizers 273 413 Resistance (and tolerance) 273 414 Biological control 275 415 True IPM investigations 277 42 Root lesion nematode 277 421 Chemical 277 422 Cultural practices 277 4221 Crop rotation and cultivation 277 4222 Time of sowing 278 4223 Other cultural practices 278 423 Resistance (and tolerance) 278 424 Biological control 279 425 True IPM Investigations 279 43 Other cereal nematodes - root knot, stem and seed gall 279 431 Chemical 279 432 Cultural practices 280 4321 Grass free rotations and fallowing with cultivation 280 4322 Seed hygiene 280 433 Resistance and tolerance 281 434 Biological control 281 435 True IPM investigations 282 5 Conclusions 282 References 283 14 Integrated management of root-knot nematodes in mediterranean horticultural crops 295 1 Introduction 295 2 Meloidogyne 297 21 Symptoms 297 22 Biology and ecology 299 23 Yield losses of economic importance 300 3 Root-knot nematodes management 301 31 Plant resistance 302 32 Heat 304 33 Soil-less cultivation 305 34 Crop rotation 305 35 Trap crops 306 36 Fallowing and tillage 306 37 Biological 308 38 Biofumigation 308 39 Chemical 309 4 Tools for decision in integrated pest management 41 Management of Meloidogyne javanica with rotation in plastic houses in Northeastern Spain: an example 309 310 References 312 15 Modeling nematodes regulation by bacterial endoparasites 321 1 Introduction 321 2 Nematode parasitic bacteria 322 3 Modeling nematodes regulation 325 31 Lotka-Volterra model (LV) 326 32 Anderson and May Model G 328 33 Modeling Pasteuria 330 4 Experimental and practical issues 332 5 Conclusions 333 References 334