MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR SIGNALING
1 INTRODUCTION PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES THE CYTOSKELETON AND EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX CORE CELLULAR FUNCTIONS IN ORGANELLES METABOLIC PROCESSES IN MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLASTS CELLULAR DNA TO CHROMATIN PROTEIN ACTIVITIES IN THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM AND GOLGI APPARATUS DIGESTION AND RECYCLING OF MACROMOLECULES GENOMES OF BACTERIA REVEAL IMPORTANCE OF SIGNALING ORGANIZATION AND SIGNALING OF EUKARYOTIC CELL FIXED INFRASTRUCTURE AND THE CONTROL LAYER EUKARYOTIC GENE AND PROTEIN REGULATION SIGNALING MALFUNCTION CENTRAL TO HUMAN DISEASE ORGANIZATION OF TEXT 2 THE CONTROL LAYER EUKARYOTIC CHROMOSOMES ARE BUILT FROM NUCLEOSOMES THE HIGHLY ORGANIZED INTERPHASE NUCLEUS COVALENT BONDS DE?NE THE PRIMARY STRUCTURE OF A PROTEIN HYDROGEN BONDS SHAPE THE SECONDARY STRUCTURE STRUCTURAL MOTIFS AND DOMAIN FOLDS: SEMI-INDEPENDENT PROTEIN MODULES ARRANGEMENT OF PROTEIN SECONDARY STRUCTURE ELEMENTS AND CHAIN TOPOLOGY TERTIARY STRUCTURE OF A PROTEIN: MOTIFS AND DOMAINS QUATERNARY STRUCTURE: THE ARRANGEMENT OF SUBUNITS MANY SIGNALING PROTEINS UNDERGO COVALENT MODI?CATIONS ANCHORS ENABLE PROTEINS TO ATTACH TO MEMBRANES GLYCOSYLATION PRODUCES MATURE GLYCOPROTEINS PROTEOLYTIC PROCESSING IS WIDELY USED IN SIGNALING REVERSIBLE ADDITION AND REMOVAL OF PHOSPHORYL GROUPS REVERSIBLE ADDITION AND REMOVAL OF METHYL AND ACETYL GROUPS REVERSIBLE ADDITION AND REMOVAL OF SUMO GROUPS POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODI?CATIONS TO HISTONES 3 EXPLORING PROTEIN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION INTERACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION WITH MATTER BIOMOLECULE ABSORPTION AND EMISSION SPECTRA PROTEIN STRUCTURE VIA X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY MEMBRANE PROTEIN 3-D STRUCTURE VIA ELECTRON AND CRYOELECTRON CRYSTALLOGRAPHY DETERMINING PROTEIN STRUCTURE THROUGH NMR INTRINSIC MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS USING PROTEIN FLUORESCENCE TO PROBE CONTROL LAYER EXPLORING SIGNALING WITH FRET EXPLORING PROTEIN STRUCTURE WITH CIRCULAR DICHROISM INFRARED AND RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY TO PROBE VIBRATIONAL STATES A GENETIC METHOD FOR DETECTING PROTEIN INTERACTIONS DNA AND OLIGONUCLEOTIDE ARRAYS PROVIDE INFORMATION ON GENES GEL ELECTROPHORESIS OF PROTEINS MASS SPECTROSCOPY OF PROTEINS 4 MACROMOLECULAR FORCES AMINO ACIDS VARY IN SIZE AND SHAPE AMINO ACIDS BEHAVIOR IN AQUEOUS ENVIRONMENTS FORMATION OF H-BONDED ATOM NETWORKS FORCES THAT STABILIZE PROTEINS ATOMIC RADII OF MACROMOLECULAR FORCES OSMOPHOBIC FORCES STABILIZE STRESSED CELLS PROTEIN INTERFACES AID INTRA- AND INTERMOLECULAR COMMUNICATION INTERFACES UTILIZE SHAPE AND ELECTROSTATIC COMPLEMENTARITY MACROMOLECULAR FORCES HOLD MACROMOLECULES TOGETHER MOTION MODELS OF COVALENTLY BONDED ATOMS MODELING VAN DER WAALS FORCES MOLECULAR DYNAMICS IN THE STUDY OF SYSTEM EVOLUTION IMPORTANCE OF WATER MOLECULES IN CELLULAR FUNCTION ESSENTIAL NATURE OF PROTEIN DYNAMICS 5 PROTEIN FOLDING AND BINDING THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS: ENERGY IS CONSERVED HEAT FLOWS FROM A HOTTER TO A COOLER BODY DIRECTION OF HEAT FLOW: SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS ORDER-CREATING PROCESSES OCCUR SPONTANEOUSLY AS GIBBS FREE ENERGY DECREASES SPONTANEOUS FOLDING OF NEW PROTEINS THE FOLDING PROCESS: AN ENERGY LANDSCAPE PICTURE MISFOLDED PROTEINS CAN CAUSE DISEASE PROTEIN PROBLEMS AND ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE AMYLOID BUILDUP IN NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS MOLECULAR CHAPERONES ASSIST IN PROTEIN FOLDING IN THE CROWDED CELL ROLE OF CHAPERONINS IN PROTEIN FOLDING HSP 90 CHAPERONES HELP MAINTAIN SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAYS PROTEINS: DYNAMIC, FLEXIBLE, AND READY TO CHANGE 6 STRESS AND PHEROMONE RESPONSES IN YEAST HOW SIGNALING BEGINS SIGNALING COMPLEXES FORM IN RESPONSE TO RECEPTOR-LIGAND BINDING ROLE OF PROTEIN KINASES, PHOSPHATASES, AND GTPASES ROLE OF PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES END POINTS ARE CONTACT POINTS TO FIXED INFRASTRUCTURE TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS COMBINE TO ALTER GENES PROTEIN KINASES ARE KEY SIGNAL TRANSDUCERS KINASES OFTEN REQUIRE SECOND MESSENGER COSTIMULATION FLANKING RESIDUES DIRECT PHOSPHORYLATION OF TARGET RESIDUES DOCKING SITES AND SUBSTRATE SPECI?CITY PROTEIN PHOSPHATASES ARE PROMINENT COMPONENTS OF SIGNALING PATHWAYS SCAFFOLD AND ANCHOR PROTEIN ROLE IN SIGNALING AND SPECI?CITY GTPASES REGULATE PROTEIN TRAF?CKING IN THE CELL PHEROMONE RESPONSE PATHWAY IS ACTIVATED BY PHEROMONES OSMOTIC STRESSES ACTIVATE GLYCEROL RESPONSE PATHWAY YEASTS HAVE A GENERAL STRESS RESPONSE TARGET OF RAPAMYCIN (TOR) ADJUSTS PROTEIN SYNTHESIS TOR ADJUSTS GENE TRANSCRIPTION SIGNALING PROTEINS MOVE BY DIFFUSION 7 TWO-COMPONENT SIGNALING SYSTEMS PROKARYOTIC SIGNALING PATHWAYS CATALYTIC ACTION BY HISTIDINE KINASES THE CATALYTIC ACTIVITY OF HK OCCURS AT THE ACTIVE SITE THE GHKL SUPERFAMILY ACTIVATION OF RESPONSE REGULATORS BY PHOSPHORYLATION RESPONSE REGULATORS ARE SWITCHES THROWN AT TRANSCRIPTIONAL CONTROL POINTS STRUCTURE AND DOMAIN ORGANIZATION OF BACTERIAL RECEPTORS BACTERIAL RECEPTORS FORM SIGNALING CLUSTERS BACTERIA WITH HIGH SENSITIVITY AND MOBILITY FEEDBACK LOOP IN THE CHEMOTACTIC PATHWAY HOW PLANTS SENSE AND RESPOND TO HORMONES ROLE OF GROWTH PLASTICITY IN PLANTS ROLE OF PHYTOCHROMES IN PLANT CELL GROWTH CRYPTOCHROMES HELP REGULATE CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS 8 ORGANIZATION OF SIGNAL COMPLEXES BY LIPIDS, CALCIUM, AND CYCLIC AMP COMPOSITION OF BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES MICRODOMAINS AND CAVEOLAE IN MEMBRANES LIPID KINASES PHOSPHORYLATE PLASMA MEMBRANE PHOSPHOGLYCERIDES GENERATION OF LIPID SECOND MESSENGERS FROM PIP2 REGULATION OF CELLULAR PROCESSES BY PI3K PIPS REGULATE LIPID SIGNALING ROLE OF LIPID-BINDING DOMAINS ROLE OF INTRACELLULAR CALCIUM LEVEL ELEVATIONS ROLE OF CALMODULIN IN SIGNALING ADENYLYL CYCLASES AND PHOSPHODIESTERASES PRODUCE AND REGULATE CAMP SECOND MESSENGERS SECOND MESSENGERS ACTIVATE CERTAIN SERINE/ THREONINE KINASES LIPIDS AND UPSTREAM KINASES ACTIVATE PKB PKB SUPPLIES A SIGNAL NECESSARY FOR CELL SURVIVAL PHOSPHOLIPIDS AND CA2+ ACTIVATE PROTEIN KINASE C ANCHORING PROTEINS HELP LOCALIZE PKA AND PKC NEAR SUBSTRATES PKC REGULATES RESPONSE OF CARDIAC CELLS TO OXYGEN DEPRIVATION CAMP ACTIVATES PKA, WHICH REGULATES ION CHANNEL ACTIVITIES PKS FACILITATE THE TRANSFER OF PHOSPHORYL GROUPS FROM ATPS TO SUBSTRATES 9 SIGNALING BY CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM LEUKOCYTES MEDIATE IMMUNE RESPONSES LEUKOCYTES SIGNAL ONE ANOTHER USING CYTOKINES APC AND NAÏVE T CELL SIGNALS GUIDE DIFFERENTIATION INTO HELPER T CELLS FIVE FAMILIES OF CYTOKINES AND CYTOKINE RECEPTORS ROLE OF NF-KB/REL IN ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSES ROLE OF MAP KINASE MODULES IN IMMUNE RESPONSES ROLE OF TRAF AND DD ADAPTERS TOLL/IL-1R PATHWAY MEDIATES INNATE IMMUNE RESPONSES TNF FAMILY MEDIATES HOMEOSTASIS, DEATH, AND SURVIVAL ROLE OF HEMATOPOIETIN AND RELATED RECEPTORS ROLE OF HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE CYTOKINE SIGNAL-TRANSDUCING JAKS AND STATS INTERFERON SYSTEM: FIRST LINE OF HOST DEFENSE IN MAMMALS AGAINST VIRUS ATTACKS CHEMOKINES PROVIDE NAVIGATIONAL CUES FOR LEUKOCYTES B AND T CELL RECEPTORS RECOGNIZE ANTIGENS MHCS PRESENT ANTIGENS ON THE CELL SURFACE ANTIGEN-RECOGNIZING RECEPTORS FORM SIGNALING COMPLEXES WITH CORECEPTORS COSTIMULATORY SIGNALS BETWEEN APCS AND T CELLS ROLE OF LYMPHOCYTE-SIGNALING MOLECULES KINETIC PROOFREADING AND SERIAL TRIGGERING OF TCRS 10 CELL ADHESION AND MOTILITY CELL ADHESION RECEPTORS: LONG HIGHLY MODULAR GLYCOPROTEINS INTEGRINS AS BIDIRECTIONAL SIGNALING RECEPTORS ROLE OF LEUKOCYTE-SPECI?C INTEGRIN MOST INTEGRINS BIND TO PROTEINS BELONGING TO THE ECM CADHERINS ARE PRESENT IN MOST CELLS OF THE BODY IGCAMS MEDIATE CELL–CELL AND CELL–ECM ADHESION SELECTINS ARE CAMS INVOLVED IN LEUKOCYTE MOTILITY LEUKOCYTES ROLL, ADHERE, AND CRAWL TO REACH THE SITE OF AN INFECTION BONDS FORM AND BREAK DURING LEUKOCYTE ROLLING BOND DISSOCIATION OF ROLLING LEUKOCYTE AS SEEN IN MICROSCOPY SLIP AND CATCH BONDS BETWEEN SELECTINS AND THEIR CARBOHYDRATE LIGANDS DEVELOPMENT IN CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DIFFUSIBLE, ANCHORED, AND MEMBRANE-BOUND GLYCOPROTEINS IN NEURITE OUTGROWTH GROWTH CONE NAVIGATION MECHANISMS MOLECULAR MARKING BY CONCENTRATION GRADIENTS OF NETRINS AND SLITS HOW SEMAPHORINS, SCATTER FACTORS, AND THEIR RECEPTORS CONTROL INVASIVE GROWTH EPHRINS AND THEIR EPH RECEPTORS MEDIATE CONTACT-DEPENDENT REPULSION 11 SIGNALING IN THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM FIVE MODES OF CELL-TO-CELL SIGNALING ROLE OF GROWTH FACTORS IN ANGIOGENESIS ROLE OF EGF FAMILY IN WOUND HEALING NEUROTROPHINS CONTROL NEURON GROWTH, DIFFERENTIATION, AND SURVIVAL ROLE OF RECEPTOR TYROSINE KINASES IN SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PHOSPHOPROTEIN RECOGNITION MODULES UTILIZED WIDELY IN SIGNALING PATHWAYS MODULES THAT RECOGNIZE PROLINE-RICH SEQUENCES UTILIZED WIDELY IN SIGNALING PATHWAYS PROTEIN–PROTEIN INTERACTION DOMAINS UTILIZED WIDELY IN SIGNALING PATHWAYS NON-RTKS CENTRAL IN METAZOAN SIGNALING PROCESSES AND APPEAR IN MANY PATHWAYS SRC IS A REPRESENTATIVE NRTK ROLES OF FOCAL ADHESION KINASE FAMILY OF NRTKS GTPASES ARE ESSENTIAL REGULATORS OF CELLULAR FUNCTIONS SIGNALING BY RAS GTPASES FROM PLASMA MEMBRANE AND GOLGI GTPASES CYCLE BETWEEN GTP- AND GDP-BOUND STATES ROLE OF RHO, RAC, AND CDC42, AND THEIR ISOFORMS RAN FAMILY COORDINATES TRAF?C IN AND OUT OF THE NUCLEUS RAB AND ARF FAMILIES MEDIATE THE TRANSPORT OF CARGO 12 SIGNALING IN THE ENDOCRINE AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS THROUGH GPCRS GPCRS CLASSI?CATION CRITERIA STUDY OF RHODOPSIN GPCR WITH CRYOELECTRON MICROSCOPY AND X-RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY SUBUNITS OF HETEROTRIMERIC G PROTEINS THE FOUR FAMILIES OF GA SUBUNITS ADENYLYL CYCLASES AND PHOSPHODIESTERASES KEY TO SECOND MESSENGER SIGNALING DESENSITIZATION STRATEGY OF G PROTEINS TO MAINTAIN RESPONSIVENESS TO ENVIRONMENT GPCRS ARE INTERNALIZED, AND THEN RECYCLED OR DEGRADED HORMONE-SENDING AND RECEIVING GLANDS FUNCTIONS OF SIGNALING MOLECULES NEUROMODULATORS IN?UENCE EMOTIONS, COGNITION, PAIN, AND FEELING WELL ILL EFFECTS OF IMPROPER DOPAMINE LEVELS INADEQUATE SEROTONIN LEVELS UNDERLIE MOOD DISORDERS GPCRS’ ROLE IN THE SOMATOSENSORY SYSTEM RESPONSIBLE FOR SENSE OF TOUCH AND NOCICEPTION SUBSTANCES THAT REGULATE PAIN AND FEVER RESPONSES COMPOSITION OF RHODOPSIN PHOTORECEPTOR HOW G PROTEINS REGULATE ION CHANNELS GPCRS TRANSDUCE SIGNALS CONVEYED BY ODORANTS GPCRS AND ION CHANNELS RESPOND TO TASTANTS 13 CELL FATE AND POLARITY NOTCH SIGNALING MEDIATES CELL FATE DECISION HOW CELL FATE DECISIONS ARE MEDIATED PROTEOLYTIC PROCESSING OF KEY SIGNALING ELEMENTS THREE COMPONENTS OF TGF-B SIGNALING SMAD PROTEINS CONVEY TGF-B SIGNALS INTO THE NUCLEUS MULTIPLE WNT SIGNALING PATHWAYS GUIDE EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT ROLE OF NONCANONICAL WNT PATHWAY HEDGEHOG SIGNALING ROLE DURING DEVELOPMENT GLI RECEIVES HH SIGNALS STAGES OF EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT USE MORPHOGENS GENE FAMILY HIERARCHY OF CELL FATE DETERMINANTS IN DROSOPHILA EGG DEVELOPMENT IN D MELANOGASTER GAP GENES HELP PARTITION THE BODY INTO BANDS PAIR-RULE GENES PARTITION THE BODY INTO SEGMENTS SEGMENT POLARITY GENES GUIDE PARASEGMENT DEVELOPMENT HOX GENES GUIDE PATTERNING IN AXIALLY SYMMETRIC ANIMALS 14 CANCER SEVERAL CRITICAL MUTATIONS GENERATE A TRANSFORMED CELL RAS SWITCH STICKS TO “ON” UNDER CERTAIN MUTATIONS CRUCIAL REGULATORY SEQUENCE MISSING IN ONCOGENIC FORMS OF SRC OVEREXPRESSED GFRS SPONTANEOUSLY DIMERIZE IN MANY CANCERS GFRS AND ADHESION MOLECULES COOPERATE TO PROMOTE TUMOR GROWTH ROLE OF MUTATED FORMS OF PROTEINS IN CANCER DEVELOPMENT TRANSLOCATED AND FUSED GENES ARE PRESENT IN LEUKEMIAS REPAIR OF DNA DAMAGE DOUBLE-STRAND-BREAK REPAIR MACHINERY HOW BREAST CANCER (BRCA) PROTEINS INTERACT WITH DNA PI3K SUPERFAMILY MEMBERS THAT RECOGNIZE DOUBLE-STRAND BREAKS CHECKPOINTS REGULATE TRANSITION EVENTS IN A NETWORK CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES FORM THE CORE OF CELL-CYCLE CONTROL SYSTEM PRB REGULATES CELL CYCLE IN RESPONSE TO MITOGENIC SIGNALS P53 HALTS CELL CYCLE WHILE DNA REPAIRS ARE MADE P53 AND PRB CONTROLLERS CENTRAL TO METAZOAN CANCER PREVENTION PROGRAM P53 STRUCTURE SUPPORTS ITS ROLE AS A CENTRAL CONTROLLER TELOMERASE PRODUCTION IN CANCER CELLS 15 APOPTOSIS CASPASES AND BCL-2 PROTEINS ARE KEY MEDIATORS OF APOPTOSIS CASPASES ARE PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES SYNTHESIZED AS INACTIVE ZYMOGENS CASPASES ARE INITIATORS AND EXECUTIONERS OF APOPTOSIS PROGRAMS THERE ARE THREE KINDS OF BCL-2 PROTEINS HOW CASPASES ARE ACTIVATED CELL-TO-CELL SIGNALS STIMULATE FORMATION OF THE DISC DEATH SIGNALS ARE CONVEYED BY THE CASPASE PATHWAY HOW PRO- AND ANTIAPOPTOTIC SIGNALS ARE RELAYED BCL-2 PROTEINS REGULATE MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY MITOCHONDRIA RELEASE CYTOCHROME C IN RESPONSE TO OXIDATIVE STRESSES MITOCHONDRIA RELEASE APOPTOSIS-PROMOTING AGENTS ROLE OF APOPTOSOME IN (MITOCHONDRIAL PATHWAY TO) APOPTOSIS INHIBITORS OF APOPTOSIS PROTEINS REGULATE CASPASE ACTIVITY SMAC/DIABLO AND OMI/HTRA2 REGULATE IAPS FEEDBACK LOOPS COORDINATE ACTIONS AT VARIOUS CONTROL POINTS CELLS CAN PRODUCE SEVERAL DIFFERENT KINDS OF CALCIUM SIGNALS EXCESSIVE [CA2+] IN MITOCHONDRIA CAN TRIGGER APOPTOSIS P53 PROMOTES CELL DEATH IN RESPONSE TO IRREPARABLE DNA DAMAGE ANTI-CANCER DRUGS TARGET THE CELL’S APOPTOSIS MACHINERY 16 GENE REGULATION IN EUKARYOTES ORGANIZATION OF THE GENE REGULATORY REGION HOW PROMOTERS REGULATE GENES TFS BIND DNA THROUGH THEIR DNA-BINDING DOMAINS TRANSCRIPTIONAL ACTIVATION DOMAINS INITIATE TRANSCRIPTION NUCLEAR HORMONE RECEPTORS ARE TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE BASAL TRANSCRIPTION MACHINERY RNAP II IS CORE MODULE OF THE TRANSCRIPTION MACHINERY REGULATION BY CHROMATIN-MODIFYING ENZYMES MULTIPROTEIN COMPLEX USE OF ENERGY OF ATP HYDROLYSIS PROTEIN COMPLEXES ACT AS INTERFACES BETWEEN TFS AND RNAP II ALTERNATIVE SPLICING TO GENERATE MULTIPLE PROTEINS PRE-MESSENGER RNA MOLECULES CONTAIN SPLICE SITES SMALL NUCLEAR RNAS (SNRNAS) HOW EXON SPLICES ARE DETERMINED TRANSLATION INITIATION FACTORS REGULATE START OF TRANSLATION EIF2 INTERFACES UPSTREAM REGULATORY SIGNALS AND THE RIBOSOMAL MACHINERY CRITICAL CONTROL POINTS FOR PROTEIN SYNTHESIS 17 CELL REGULATION IN BACTERIA CELL REGULATION IN BACTERIA OCCURS PRIMARILY AT TRANSCRIPTION LEVEL TRANSCRIPTION IS INITIATED BY RNAP HOLOENZYMES SIGMA FACTORS BIND TO REGULATORY SEQUENCES IN PROMOTERS BACTERIA UTILIZE SIGMA FACTORS TO MAKE MAJOR CHANGES IN GENE EXPRESSION MECHANISM OF BACTERIAL TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS MANY TFS FUNCTION AS RESPONSE REGULATORS ORGANIZATION OF PROTEIN-ENCODING REGIONS AND THEIR REGULATORY SEQUENCES THE LAC OPERON HELPS CONTROL METABOLISM IN E COLI FLAGELLAR MOTORS ARE ERECTED IN SEVERAL STAGES UNDER STARVATION CONDITIONS, B SUBTILIS UNDERGOES SPORULATION CELL-CYCLE PROGRESSION AND DIFFERENTIATION IN C CRESCENTUS ANTIGENIC VARIATION COUNTERS ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSES BACTERIA ORGANIZE INTO COMMUNITIES WHEN NUTRIENT CONDITIONS ARE FAVORABLE QUORUM SENSING PLAYS A KEY ROLE IN ESTABLISHING A COLONY BACTERIA FORM ASSOCIATIONS WITH OTHER BACTERIA ON EXPOSED SURFACES HORIZONTAL GENE TRANSFER (HGT) PATHOGENIC SPECIES POSSESS VIRULENCE CASSETTES BACTERIAL DEATH MODULES MYXOBACTERIA EXHIBIT TWO DISTINCT FORMS OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR STRUCTURE FORMATION BY HETEROCYSTOUS CYANOBACTERIA RHIZOBIA COMMUNICATE AND FORM SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATIONS WITH LEGUMES 18 REGULATION BY VIRUSES HOW VIRUSES ENTER THEIR HOST CELLS VIRUSES ENTER AND EXIT THE NUCLEUS IN SEVERAL WAYS WAYS THAT VIRUSES EXIT A CELL VIRUSES PRODUCE A VARIETY OF DISORDERS IN HUMANS VIRUS–HOST INTERACTIONS UNDERLIE VIRUS SURVIVAL AND PROLIFERATION MULTILAYERED DEFENSES ARE BALANCED BY MULTILAYERED ATTACKS VIRUSES TARGET TNF FAMILY OF CYTOKINES HEPATITIS C VIRUS DISABLES HOST CELL’S INTERFERON SYSTEM HUMAN T LYMPHOTROPIC VIRUS TYPE 1 CAN CAUSE CANCER DNA AND RNA VIRUSES THAT CAN CAUSE CANCER HIV IS A RETROVIRUS ROLE OF GP120 ENVELOPE PROTEIN IN HIV EARLY-ACTING TAT, REV, AND NEF REGULATORY GENES LATE-ACTING VPR, VIF, VPU, AND VPX REGULATORY GENES BACTERIOPHAGES’ TWO LIFESTYLES: LYTIC AND LYSOGENIC DECIDING BETWEEN LYTIC AND LYSOGENIC LIFESTYLES ENCODING OF SHIGA TOXIN IN E COLI 19 ION CHANNELS HOW MEMBRANE POTENTIALS ARISE MEMBRANE AND ACTION POTENTIALS HAVE REGENERATIVE PROPERTIES HODGKIN–HUXLEY EQUATIONS DESCRIBE HOW ACTION POTENTIALS ARISE ION CHANNELS HAVE GATES THAT OPEN AND CLOSE FAMILIES OF ION CHANNELS EXPRESSED IN PLASMA MEMBRANE OF NEURONS ASSEMBLY OF ION CHANNELS DESIGN AND FUNCTION OF ION CHANNELS GATES AND FILTERS IN POTASSIUM CHANNELS VOLTAGE-GATED CHLORIDE CHANNELS FORM A DOUBLE-BARRELED PORE NICOTINIC ACETYLCHOLINE RECEPTORS ARE LIGAND-GATED ION CHANNELS OPERATION OF GLUTAMATE RECEPTOR ION CHANNELS 20 NEURAL RHYTHMS HEARTBEAT IS GENERATED BY PACEMAKER CELLS HCN CHANNELS’ ROLE IN PACEMAKER ACTIVITIES SYNCHRONOUS ACTIVITY IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ROLE OF LOW VOLTAGE-ACTIVATED CALCIUM CHANNELS NEUROMODULATORS MODIFY THE ACTIVITIES OF VOLTAGE-GATED ION CHANNELS GAP JUNCTIONS FORMED BY CONNEXINS MEDIATE RAPID SIGNALING BETWEEN CELLS SYNCHRONIZATION OF NEURAL FIRING HOW SPINDLING PATTERNS ARE GENERATED EPILEPTIC SEIZURES AND ABNORMAL BRAIN RHYTHMS SWIMMING AND DIGESTIVE RHYTHMS IN LOWER VERTEBRATES CPGS HAVE A NUMBER OF COMMON FEATURES NEURAL CIRCUITS ARE CONNECTED TO OTHER CIRCUITS AND FORM SYSTEMS A VARIETY OF NEUROMODULATORS REGULATE OPERATION OF THE CRUSTACEAN STG MOTOR SYSTEMS ADAPT TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT AND LEARN 21 LEARNING AND MEMORY ARCHITECTURE OF BRAIN NEURONS BY FUNCTION PROTEIN COMPLEXES’ STRUCTURAL AND SIGNALING BRIDGES ACROSS SYNAPTIC CLEFT THE PRESYNAPTIC TERMINAL AND THE SECRETION OF SIGNALING MOLECULES PSD REGION IS HIGHLY ENRICHED IN SIGNALING MOLECULES THE SEVERAL DIFFERENT FORMS OF LEARNING AND MEMORY SIGNAL INTEGRATION IN LEARNING AND MEMORY FORMATION HIPPOCAMPAL LTP IS AN EXPERIMENTAL MODEL OF LEARNING AND MEMORY INITIATION AND CONSOLIDATION PHASES OF LTP CREB IS THE CONTROL POINT AT THE TERMINUS OF THE LEARNING PATHWAY SYNAPSES RESPOND TO USE BY STRENGTHENING AND WEAKENING NEURONS MUST MAINTAIN SYNAPTIC HOMEOSTASIS FEAR CIRCUITS DETECT AND RESPOND TO DANGER AREAS OF THE BRAIN RELATING TO DRUG ADDICTION DRUG-REWARD CIRCUITS MEDIATE ADDICTIVE RESPONSES DRUG ADDICTION MAY BE AN ABERRANT FORM OF SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY IN REWARD-SEEKING BEHAVIOR, THE ORGANISM PREDICTS FUTURE EVENTS