NEW THEORIES IN ASTRONOMY
CONTENTS PART I 1945–1984: ANYTHING GOES 1945–1960: NEW OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS AND THE BEGINNING OF RADIO ASTRONOMY 1 1 OPTICAL ASTRONOMY THE 200-INCH HALE TELESCOPE AND THE 48-INCH SCHMIDT PHOTO-ELECTRIC LIGHT MEASUREMENTS IN PLACE OF PHOTOCHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS THE ‘PALOMAR OBSERVATORY SKY SURVEY’: A PUBLIC TREASURE TROVE 1 2 THE RISE OF RADIO ASTRONOMY THE EXISTENCE OF ‘RADIO STARS’ THE FIRST IDENTI?CATIONS OF ‘RADIO STARS’ WITH OPTICALLY KNOWN OBJECTS THE 21-CM LINE: ANOTHER NEW FIELD OF RESEARCH SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 1954 BREAKTHROUGH: BAADE AND MINKOWSKI IDENTI?ED THE CYGNUS A RADIO SOURCE 1955 : RADIO ASTRONOMY GIVES A NEW VISION OF THE UNIVERSE 1 3 THE LEGACY OF THE V2: X-RADIATION FROM THE SUN SPUTNIK AND THE SPACE AGE 1 4 THE REMARKABLE BEGINNING OF INFRARED ASTRONOMY REFERENCES 1945–1959: STARS AND GALAXIES 2 1 STARS STARS ON THE MAIN SEQUENCE THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STELLAR ATMOSPHERES HOW STARS CHANGE AS THEY BECOME OLDER: THE SOLUTION TO THE MYSTERY OF THE RED GIANTS CLOSELY COUPLED BINARY STARS AND NOVAE; FLOWS OF MATTER AND DISKS 2 2 GALAXIES THE CONCEPT OF ‘STELLAR POPULATIONS’ THE MILKY WAY M31, THE ANDROMEDA NEBULA CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES AND SUPERCLUSTERS THE HUBBLE CONSTANT AND THE AGE OF THE UNIVERSE GAMOW’S PREDICTION OF A REMNANT OF THE BIG BANG ‘STEADY STATE THEORY’ AND CON?ICT 1960–1974: DEVELOPING NEW INSTRUMENTS 3 1 OPTICAL ASTRONOMY PLANS FOR NEW AND BIGGER TELESCOPES BELOW THE SEEING LIMIT 3 2 RADIO ASTRONOMY 3 3 INFRARED ASTRONOMY 3 4 X-RAY AND GAMMA ASTRONOMY X-RAY ASTRONOMY GAMMA RADIATION 3 5 COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION 3 6 OBSERVATIONS AT HIGH ALTITUDE 1960–1974: STARS 4 1 HOW NATURE CREATES STARS DARK CLOUDS AND MOLECULES THE ORION NEBULA AS MODEL T TAU AND HAEBE STARS ASSOCIATIONS OF YOUNG STARS COCOON STARS: STARS UNDER CONSTRUCTION 4 2 THE SPECTRUM AND THE LIFE COURSE OF STARS MODELS FOR THE ATMOSPHERE OF STARS TRACKS OF EVOLUTION IN THE HR DIAGRAM THE LIFECYCLE OF LIGHT STARS SUCH AS THE SUN THE FORMATION OF ‘DUST PARTICLES’ AND THE EMISSION OF GAS BY AGB STARS CHROMOSPHERE, CORONA AND MAGNETIC ACTIVITY SOLAR OSCILLATIONS OR HELIOSEISMOLOGY THE LIFECYCLE OF THE MID-WEIGHT AND THE HEAVY STARS LOSS OF MASS OF HEAVY MAIN SEQUENCE STARS WOLF-RAYET STARS, AN EVOLUTIONARY ENIGMA VERY HEAVY STARS, THE HYPERGIANTS CLOSE BINARY STARS 4 3 DYING AND EXTINCT STARS WHITE DWARFS AND PLANETARY NEBULAE SUPERNOVAE NEUTRON STARS AND BLACK HOLES 4 4 MYSTERIOUS SOURCES OF GAMMA RADIATION 1960–1974: GALAXIES 5 1 GALAXIES WITHOUT STRONG RADIO RADIATION HOW ARE GALAXIES FORMED? EVOLUTION OF GALAXIES OR THE RELATION BETWEEN THE AGE OF A STAR AND THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS IT CONTAINS GAS IN THE DISK OF OUR GALAXY CENTER OF OUR GALAXY AND OF THE ANDROMEDA NEBULA STABILITY OF THE DISK OF OUR GALAXY AND A DARK MATTER HALO HOW ARE THE SPIRAL ARMS MAINTAINED? INTRUDERS IN OUR GALAXY COLLISIONS AND MERGERS BETWEEN GALAXIES M82: MASSIVE STAR FORMATION? STARBURST GALAXIES DO WE KNOW ALL THE TYPES OF GALAXIES? 1974 : A NEW PARADIGM—THE EXISTENCE OF DARK MATTER 5 2 RADIO GALAXIES AND OTHER UNUSUAL GALAXIES RADIO GALAXIES SEYFERT GALAXIES QUASARS IN SUMMARY: GALAXIES WITH ACTIVE NUCLEI (‘AGNS’) 5 3 LARGE AND LARGEST SCALE CLUSTERS AND SUPERCLUSTERS COSMOLOGY: THE OUTLOOK IN 1961 1965 : BACKGROUND RADIATION: A NEW FOUNDATION FOR COSMOLOGY AN INDEPENDENT ARGUMENT ABOUT THE HISTORY OF THE EARLY UNIVERSE FOCUSING ATTENTION ON THE PAST: HOW WERE THE CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES FORMED? 1975–1984: DEVELOPMENTS IN INSTRUMENTS 6 1 PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE 6 2 RESEARCH FROM SPACE 6 3 THE GROWING SIGNI?CANCE OF COMPUTERS: AUTOMATION 6 4 INNOVATIONS IN OPTICAL ASTRONOMY TELESCOPES DETECTORS MORE PRECISE SPECTROSCOPY MULTI?BER SPECTROSCOPY 6 5 RADIO ASTRONOMY 6 6 INFRARED ASTRONOMY AIRCRAFT, BALLOONS AND SATELLITES THE CURIOUS AFCRL CATALOG IRAS, THE ‘INFRARED ASTRONOMICAL SATELLITE’ 6 7 THE FAR ULTRAVIOLET 6 8 X-RAY RADIATION 6 9 GAMMA RADIATION 6 10 GEV AND TEV PHOTONS 1975–1984: STARS 7 1 STAR FORMATION DARK CLOUDS AND COMPACTION YOUNG STARS AND DARK CLOUDS HIGH SPEEDS, ‘JETS’ AND HERBIG-HARO OBJECTS DISKS OF ‘DUST’ AROUND YOUNG STARS: REMAINS OF A PLANET- FORMING PROCESS? 7 2 STARS ON THE MAIN SEQUENCE LIGHT STARS ON THE MAIN SEQUENCE: ACTIVITY THE EXPULSION OF MATTER BY HIGH-MASS STARS BLOWING BUBBLES THE MOST MASSIVE STARS AND THE WOLF-RAYET STARS X-RADIATION FROM HIGH-MASS STARS 7 3 THE END AND WHAT REMAINS DISINTEGRATING LOW-MASS STARS AND THE FORMATION OF WHITE DWARFS WHITE DWARFS NEUTRON STARS AND STELLAR BLACK HOLES X-RAY STARS: A SUMMARY FROM 1985 ACCRETION DISKS NEW: THE SS433 MICROQUASAR NEW: SGR, THE SOFT GAMMA REPEATER 1975–1984: GALAXIES AND THE UNIVERSE 8 1 NEW PHYSICS GRAVITATIONAL LENSES INVISIBLE OR ‘DARK’ MATTER 8 2 GALAXIES WITHOUT AN ACTIVE NUCLEUS ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES SPIRAL GALAXIES 8 3 RADIO GALAXIES: GALAXIES WITH AN ACTIVE NUCLEUS SPEEDS GREATER THAN THE SPEED OF LIGHT? MASSIVE BLACK HOLES 8 4 MERGERS, CANNIBALISM AND MASSIVE STAR FORMATION 8 5 DEEPER IN THE UNIVERSE MORE RED SHIFT MEASUREMENTS AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE COSMIC WEB THE QUASAR POPULATION PAST AND PRESENT BETWEEN GALAXIES: THE LYMAN FOREST CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES THE BUTCHER-OEMLER EFFECT 8 6 STRUCTURE IN THE UNIVERSE BACKGROUND RADIATION IN?ATION! FIRST ATTEMPTS AT AN EXPLANATION OF THE ‘STRUCTURE’ PART II 1985–2015: LONG-PLANNED EXPLORATION 1985–2015: PLANS, PEOPLE, ORGANIZATIONS AND INSTRUMENTS 9 1 PEOPLE AND THEIR PLANS WHAT THE ASTRONOMERS WANTED ORGANIZATIONS AND FINANCES SOCIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS INTERNET, COMPUTERS, SOFTWARE LEGACY PROGRAMS 9 2 OPTICAL TELESCOPES HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE MORE AND LARGER TELESCOPES IN DRY CONDITIONS SHARPENING THE IMAGES: ADAPTIVE OPTICS EXTREMELY LARGE TELESCOPES ROBOT TELESCOPES AND SURVEYS 9 3 SATELLITES FOR ASTROMETRY: HIPPARCOS AND GAIA 9 4 INFRARED TELESCOPES GROUND-BASED INFRARED TELESCOPES AND SURVEYS TELESCOPES IN SPACE 9 5 MILLIMETER AND SUB-MILLIMETER TELESCOPES RADIATION AT WAVELENGTHS BETWEEN 1 CM AND 1 MM RADIATION AT WAVELENGTHS BETWEEN 1 AND 0 1 MM 9 6 RADIO ASTRONOMY SINGLE-DISH TELESCOPES APERTURE SYNTHESIS TELESCOPES 1994 : SKA, A GRAND NEW PLAN 9 7 ASTRONOMY OF THE EXTREME ULTRAVIOLET AND X-RADIATION EXTREME ULTRAVIOLET TELESCOPES X-RAY TELESCOPES 9 8 DETECTING PHOTONS WITH THE HIGHEST ENERGY DETECTING GAMMA RADIATION VHE: PHOTONS OF VERY HIGH ENERGY 10 1995–2015: MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS AND FAILED STARS 10 1 BROWN DWARFS OR FAILED STARS PREDICTING, NAMING AND DISCOVERING BROWN DWARFS MORE BROWN DWARFS THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT BROWN DWARFS SPECTRA AND THE TYPES OF BROWN DWARFS THE ATMOSPHERE CIRCUMSTELLAR DISKS AND PLANETS ACTIVITY HOW BROWN DWARFS WERE FORMED 10 2 LIGHT STARS THE EXTERIOR OF THE SUN BELOW THE SURFACE OF THE SUN HELIOSEISMOLOGY NEUTRINOS FROM THE SUN OTHER LIGHT STARS THAN THE SUN: ASTEROSEISMOLOGY 10 3 MASSIVE STARS WHERE ARE THEY? THE DEVELOPMENT OF MASSIVE STARS IS STILL NOT FULLY UNDERSTOOD 11 1995–2015: SOMETHING COMPLETELY NEW: EXOPLANETS 11 1 HOW TO FIND PLANETS OF STARS OTHER THAN THE SUN? THE INITIAL DISCOVERIES MORE DETECTION TECHNIQUES SPACE TELESCOPES: COROT AND KEPLER 11 2 THE SOLAR SYSTEM AS AN EXAMPLE THE KANT-LAPLACE THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM LATE HEAVY BOMBARDMENT; MIGRATION; WATER ON EARTH; THE NICE MODEL WARNING: THE SOLAR SYSTEM IS SMALL—AT LEAST IN ASTRONOMICAL TERMS 11 3 PLANET FORMATION FROM DUST PARTICLES TO PLANETESIMALS THE STRUCTURE OF PLANET-FORMING DISKS THE PROBLEM OF THE HOT JUPITERS PLANET ATMOSPHERES SUMMARY: WHAT HAVE WE LEARNED ABOUT THE PLANETARY SYSTEMS? 12 1985–2015: THE FORMATION OF STARS 12 1 SUCCESSIVE STAGES IN THE FORMATION OF LOW-MASS STARS FINALLY: A COMPREHENSIVE THEORY JETS ARE COMMON PHENOMENA TTAU STARS HAVE AN ACTIVE SURFACE AND OFTEN EMIT LOTS OF X-RADIATION SILHOUETTED DISKS STAGES OF STAR FORMATION INDICATED BY MOLECULAR SPECIES 12 2 MOLECULES GALORE THE TREASURES OF THE COLLECTOR SMALL GRAINS OF DUST, THE FORMATION OF ICE AND COMPLEX MOLECULES 12 3 THE FORMATION OF HIGH-MASS STARS HOW A HIGH-MASS BINARY STAR WAS DISCOVERED IN STATU NASCENDI 12 4 THE CHANGING MORPHOLOGY OF CLOUDS A LIFECYCLE DENSER AND DARKER CLUMPS—SNAKES THE IMPORTANCE OF FILAMENTS 12 5 THE FORMATION OF STAR CLUSTERS, ILLUSTRATED BY THE W3/W4/W5 REGION 13 1995–2015: WHAT IS LEFT: COMPACT OBJECTS 13 1 WHITE DWARFS 13 2 NEUTRON STARS PULSARS PULSAR WINDS BLACK WIDOWS MAGNETARS, APX AND SGR A SUMMARY OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF NEUTRON STARS 13 3 X-RAY BINARY STARS: THE HOSTS FOR NEUTRON STARS AND BLACK HOLES COMMON PROPERTIES OF X-RAY BINARY STARS BLACK HOLES ULTRALUMINOUS X-RAY SOURCES (ULXS) 14 1995–2015: TRANSIENT PHENOMENA, MERGERS AND EXPLOSIONS 14 1 MICROLENSING: SEARCHING FOR INVISIBLE OBJECTS 14 2 PSEUDO SUPERNOVAE OR SUPERNOVA IMPOSTORS 14 3 RED NOVAE: ARE WE SEEING A ‘COMMON ENVELOPE EVENT?’ 14 4 RADIO AND INFRARED TRANSIENTS FAST RADIO BURSTS 14 5 CORE-COLLAPSE SUPERNOVAE MANY MORE SUPERNOVAE FOUND, AND THE COMPLEXITY INCREASES THE STAR BEFORE THE SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION SN1987A: FINALLY A SUPERNOVA CLOSE BY THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE CORE OF A SUPERNOVA 14 6 GAMMA RAY BURSTS (OR GRBS) 14 7 TYPE IA SUPERNOVAE 14 8 GRAVITY WAVES 15 1985–1995: GALAXIES 15 1 ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES A NUMBER OF VERY DIFFERENT TYPES CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STELLAR POPULATION X-RAYS PROVE THE PRESENCE OF DARK MATTER IN AND AROUND ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES 15 2 DISK GALAXIES DISK GALAXIES: THE FORMATION OF NEW STARS THE CENTER OF OUR MILKY WAY AND THE ANDROMEDA NEBULA: VERY MASSIVE BLACK HOLES? STARS FROM PREHISTORY CHEMICAL ABUNDANCES IN OTHER SPIRAL GALAXIES 15 3 DWARF GALAXIES 15 4 MERGERS AND STARBURSTS TOO CLOSE TO BIG BROTHER THE MAGELLANIC STREAM AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE SMALL MAGELLANIC CLOUD M82 SUPER WINDS ARP 220: AN UNUSUAL CASE 15 5 ACTIVE NUCLEI OF GALAXIES (AGNS) UNI?CATION MASSIVE BLACK HOLES IN THE CENTER OF GALAXIES DISKS AROUND MASSIVE BLACK HOLES 15 6 CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES 15 7 LARGE SCALE AND EVEN LARGER: COSMOLOGY VOIDS AND WALLS INTERGALACTIC MATTER, THE LYMAN WOOD HOW FAR CAN WE LOOK BACK INTO THE PAST? 15 8 BACKGROUND RADIATION COSMOGONY, OR HOW DID THE STRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSE COME ABOUT? 16 1995–2005: GALAXIES AND ANOTHER REVOLUTION 16 1 THE CONCORDANCE MODEL OF THE UNIVERSE THE EXPANSION OF THE UNIVERSE IS ACCELERATING ‘ANISOTROPIES’ AND FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF THE UNIVERSE A ‘CONCORDANT’ MODEL OF THE UNIVERSE 16 2 ?CDM: A SUCCESSFUL THEORY FOR THE ORIGIN OF THE COSMIC WEB AND ITS STARS AND GALAXIES 16 3 THE EXISTENCE OF SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLES AND THEIR RELATION TO THE SURROUNDING GALAXY ‘SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLES’ DO EXIST AN UNEXPECTED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GALAXIES AND MASSIVE BLACK HOLES 16 4 LARGE SURVEYS THE SLOAN DIGITAL SKY SURVEY 2 DFRGS: THE ‘TWO-DIMENSIONAL FIBER GALAXY REDSHIFT SURVEY’ OTHER SURVEYS 17 2005–2015: HARVEST TIME 17 1 SEARCHING FOR HIGH-Z GALAXIES THE CFHT SURVEY LYMAN-BREAK GALAXIES: Z = 2–3 FURTHER THAN Z = 3 17 2 STAR FORMATION THROUGH THE AGES GAS CLOUDS AT HIGH Z NEWLY FORMED STARS 17 3 CLUSTERS GALORE THE BULLET CLUSTER: UNEXPECTED EVIDENCE OF THE EXISTENCE OF DARK MATTER 17 4 EARLY TIMES: RE-IONIZATION QUASARS AND RE-IONIZATION RE-IONIZATION AND THE 21 CM LINE 17 5 BARYONIC ACOUSTIC OSCILLATIONS