CONTROL AND MANIPULATION OF ANIMAL GROWTH
CONTENTS PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION XIII PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION XIV PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION XV 1 GENERAL ASPECTS OF GROWTH 1 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 BEING THE RIGHT SIZE 1 3 WHY DO ANIMALS CHANGE IN FORM AS THEY GROW? GROWTH OF THE EYE GROWTH OF WINGS THE PINNA OF THE EAR 1 4 SHAPE AND MASS 1 5 DOMESTICATION AND SIZE OF ANIMAL 1 6 GROWTH AND FORM 1 7 DOMESTICATION AND GROWTH 2 CELLS 2 1 INTRODUCTION 2 2 CELL STRUCTURE SIZE OF CELLS 2 3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CELLS 2 4 THE CYTOPLASM AND ORGANELLES 2 5 THE NUCLEUS DNA PACKAGING INTO CHROMOSOMES DNA TRANSCRIPTION INTO RNA PROTEIN SYNTHESIS FROM RNA 2 6 VARIATION BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS GENE SEQUENCES EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS REGULATION BY NON-CODING RNA REGULATION OF GENE TRANSCRIPTION SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION 2 7 ORGANELLES OF PROTEIN DEGRADATION 3 PRINCIPLES OF CELL GROWTH 3 1 INTRODUCTION 3 2 THE CELL CYCLE AND MITOSIS CONTROL OF CELL PROLIFERATION CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINTS 3 3 CONTROL OF CELL HYPERTROPHY 3 4 CELL DEATH 3 5 DIFFERENTIATION OF SPECIALIZED CELL TYPES 3 6 STEM CELLS 3 7 BASIC CELL TYPES 3 7 1 CELL ADHESION 3 8 CHARACTERISTICS OF PROLIFERATION IN TISSUES AND ORGANS 4 TISSUES: BASIC STRUCTURE AND GROWTH 4 1 INTRODUCTION 4 2 NERVOUS TISSUE 4 2 1 STRUCTURE OF NERVOUS TISSUE: CELLS AND FIBRES 4 2 2 MAJOR DIVISIONS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 4 2 3 GROWTH OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 4 3 CONNECTIVE TISSUE 4 3 1 COMPONENTS OF THE EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX 4 3 2 STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES 4 4 CARTILAGE AND BONE 4 4 1 CARTILAGE CELLS AND STRUCTURE 4 4 2 BONE CELLS AND STRUCTURE 4 4 3 BONE STRENGTH 4 5 GROWTH OF THE SKELETON 4 5 1 PATTERNING AND ENDOCHONDRAL BONE FORMATION 4 5 2 FORMATION OF THE GROWTH PLATE 4 5 3 INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION 4 5 4 BONE REMODELLING 4 5 5 FACTORS AFFECTING BONE GROWTH 4 5 6 ANTLERS 4 5 7 TEETH 4 6 HAEMATOPOIETIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE 4 7 ADIPOSE TISSUE 4 7 1 ADIPOSE TYPES AND FUNCTIONS 4 7 2 DISTRIBUTION OF ADIPOSE TISSUE 4 7 3 ADIPOSE CELLS 4 7 4 ADIPOSE METABOLISM 4 7 5 ADIPOSE BLOOD SUPPLY 4 7 6 ADIPOGENESIS: DEVELOPMENT OF THE FAT CELL 4 7 7 EMBRYONIC AND FETAL ADIPOSE DEVELOPMENT 4 7 8 POSTNATAL ADIPOSE GROWTH 4 7 9 EXCESS ADIPOSE TISSUE 4 7 10 ADIPOSE GROWTH IN CATTLE 4 7 11 ADIPOSE GROWTH IN PIGS 4 7 12 ADIPOSE GROWTH IN SHEEP 4 7 13 ADIPOSE TISSUE COMPOSITION 4 7 14 FATTY ACID COMPOSITION 4 7 15 SPECIES AND NUTRITION EFFECTS ON FATTY ACID COMPOSITION 4 7 16 AGE AND FATTY ACID COMPOSITION 4 7 17 GROWTH RATE AND FATTY ACID COMPOSITION 4 7 18 BREED, GENOTYPE, SEX AND FATTY ACID COMPOSITION 4 8 MUSCLE TISSUE 4 8 1 MUSCLE TYPES 4 8 2 THE MUSCLE FIBRE 4 8 3 MUSCLE FIBRE TYPES 4 8 4 MUSCLE FORCE TRANSMISSION AND THE MUSCLE–TENDON JUNCTION 4 8 5 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MUSCLES 4 8 6 NORMAL MUSCLE GROWTH 4 8 7 MYOBLAST FUSION ESTABLISHES FIBRE NUMBER AND TYPE 4 8 8 MYOGENIC DETERMINATION FACTORS 4 8 9 POSTNATAL MUSCLE HYPERTROPHY 4 8 10 MUSCLE ATROPHY 4 8 11 ABNORMAL MUSCLE GROWTH 4 8 12 DWARFISM 4 8 13 DOUBLE MUSCLING 4 8 14 NUTRITIONAL MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY 4 8 15 THE CALLIPYGE GENE 4 8 16 SOFT AND EXUDATIVE MUSCLE 4 9 EPITHELIAL TISSUES 4 9 1 TYPES AND STRUCTURE 4 9 2 INTEGUMENT 4 9 3 HAIR AND WOOL 5 TISSUES: GROWTH AND STRUCTURE RELATIVE TO PRODUCT VALUE FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION 5 1 INTRODUCTION 5 2 GRADING SCHEMES AND VALUE 5 3 YIELD AND COMPOSITION 5 3 1 MATURITY 5 3 2 BREED AND GENDER 5 4 CARCASS TISSUES AND CONCEPTS OF MEAT QUALITY 5 4 1 INTRODUCTION 5 5 THE TRANSITION FROM MUSCLE TO MEAT 5 5 1 EFFECTS OF PH ON MUSCLE 5 6 VISUAL PERCEPTION OF MEAT QUALITY 5 6 1 MEAT COLOUR 5 6 2 DARK-CUTTING MEAT 5 6 3 PALE, SOFT AND EXUDATIVE MEAT 5 7 EATING QUALITY OF MEAT 5 7 1 TENDERNESS 5 7 2 GROWTH RATE, MARBLING AND TENDERNESS 5 7 3 POST-MORTEM PROTEOLYSIS AND AGEING 5 7 4 THE CALPAIN ENZYME SYSTEM 5 7 5 EFFECTS OF BREED AND GENDER ON TENDERNESS 5 7 6 MEAT FLAVOUR 5 7 7 BOAR ODOUR 5 8 ADIPOSE TISSUE AND MEAT QUALITY 5 8 1 FAT COLOUR 5 8 2 FAT FIRMNESS 5 8 3 NUTRITIVE VALUE AND KEEPING QUALITY 5 9 FIBRE YIELD AND QUALITY 5 9 1 WOOL YIELD 5 9 2 FIBRE DIAMETER AND LENGTH 5 9 3 STAPLE STRENGTH AND LENGTH 5 9 4 CRIMP 5 9 5 COLOUR 5 9 6 KEMP AND HAIR FIBRES 5 9 7 GOAT HAIR 6 MAMMARY GLAND GROWTH AND PRODUCT YIELD 6 1 INTRODUCTION 6 2 MAMMARY GLAND STRUCTURE 6 3 MEASUREMENT OF GROWTH AND SIZE 6 4 MAMMOGENESIS IN THE PRENATAL PERIOD IN CATTLE, SHEEP, GOATS AND PIGS INTRODUCTION CATTLE SHEEP AND GOATS PIGS 6 5 DEVELOPMENT AT BIRTH AND MAMMOGENESIS IN POSTNATAL LIFE IN CATTLE AT BIRTH TO PUBERTY AND IN RECURRING OESTROUS CYCLES DURING PREGNANCY PARTURITION AND DURING LACTATION AND AT INVOLUTION 6 6 HORMONAL AND GROWTH FACTOR CONTROL OF MAMMOGENESIS 6 7 EFFECTS OF EXTERNAL FACTORS 6 8 PRODUCTS OF THE MAMMARY GLAND NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF COLOSTRUM AND MILK 6 9 NUTRIENT CONTENT AND GROWTH OF SUCKING ANIMALS 7 HORMONAL INFLUENCES ON GROWTH 7 1 INTRODUCTION 7 2 HOMEOSTASIS AND HOMEORHESIS 7 3 COMMUNICATION BETWEEN CELLS AND TISSUES JUXTACRINE SIGNALLING PARACRINE AND AUTOCRINE SIGNALLING ENDOCRINE SIGNALLING NEURAL SIGNALLING SIGNALLING IN DEVELOPMENT 7 4 COMMON FEATURES OF COMMUNICATION BETWEEN CELLS BINDING PROTEINS HORMONE RECEPTORS 7 5 INDIVIDUAL HORMONES INSULIN-LIKE GROWTH FACTORS INSULIN GROWTH HORMONE CATECHOLAMINES THYROID HORMONES GLUCOCORTICOIDS SEX STEROIDS PROLACTIN 7 6 HORMONES, APPETITE AND SATIETY SHORT-TERM CONTROL OF INTAKE AND SATIETY GHRELIN CHOLECYSTOKININ PEPTIDE YY LEPTIN: LONG-TERM REGULATION OF FOOD INTAKE 7 7 HORMONES AND THE PHOTOPERIODIC CONTROL OF GROWTH 8 GENETIC INFLUENCES ON GROWTH 8 1 INTRODUCTION 8 2 HERITABILITY OF GROWTH AND GROWTH-RELATED TRAITS 8 2 1 INTRODUCTION 8 2 2 SELECTION DIFFERENTIAL, GENERATION INTERVAL AND GENETIC GAIN 8 3 CROSS-BREEDING AND HYBRID VIGOUR 8 4 UNDESIRABLE GENETIC EFFECTS ON GROWTH AND RELATED TRAITS 8 5 BREEDS 8 6 PREDICTION MARKERS OF GROWTH 9 THE IMMUNE SYSTEM AND GROWTH 9 1 INTRODUCTION 9 2 THE IMMUNE SYSTEM, DISEASE AND GROWTH 9 3 ENDOCRINE AND IMMUNE SYSTEM INTERACTIONS 9 4 THE IMMUNE SYSTEM AND MANIPULATION OF ENDOCRINE FUNCTION 10 GAMETES, FERTILIZATION AND EMBRYONIC GROWTH IN MAMMALS 10 1 INTRODUCTION 10 2 MEIOSIS, GAMETES AND FERTILIZATION 10 2 1 INTRODUCTION 10 2 2 MEIOSIS AND GAMETOGENESIS 10 2 3 GAMETES AND FERTILIZATION 10 3 EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT 10 3 1 CLEAVAGE 10 3 2 BLASTOCYST FORMATION AND HATCHING 10 3 3 GASTRULATION AND TUBULATION 10 4 THE UTERUS, THE PLACENTA AND EMBRYONIC ATTACHMENT 10 4 1 THE UTERUS 10 4 2 THE PLACENTA AND EMBRYONIC ATTACHMENT 10 5 POST-GASTRULATION AND POST-TUBULATION EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT 10 6 NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND EMBRYO GROWTH 10 6 1 TECHNIQUES 10 6 2 EMBRYO GROWTH 11 PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL GROWTH IN MAMMALS 11 1 PROBLEMS OF DESCRIBING GROWTH GROWTH IN RELATION TO TIME 11 2 DESCRIBING PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL GROWTH 11 3 TARGETS OF GROWTH 11 4 SEQUENTIAL GROWTH TARGETS THE EMBRYO AS AN EFFECTIVE PARASITE THE FETUS AS A COMPETITOR THE FETUS AS A TEMPLATE FOR GROWTH SEMI-INDEPENDENCE AT BIRTH THE NEWLY WEANED JUVENILE THE GROWTH PHASE PUBERTY AND THE ONSET OF REPRODUCTIVE CAPABILITY REPRODUCTIVE PHASE SENESCENCE AND DEATH 11 5 CHANGES IN PROPORTION DURING GROWTH 11 5 1 CHANGES IN PROPORTION DURING PRENATAL GROWTH 11 5 2 SIZE AT BIRTH 11 5 3 THE FIRST CONTROVERSY: LIVE WEIGHT AS A DETERMINING VARIABLE 11 5 4 THE SECOND CONTROVERSY: SHOULD FAT BE INCLUDED AS PART OF THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE? 11 6 FUNCTIONAL UNITS 11 7 TISSUE PROPORTIONS: BREED AND SLAUGHTER WEIGHT 11 8 CONCLUSIONS 12 GROWTH OF AVIAN SPECIES 12 1 INTRODUCTION 12 2 CLASSIFICATION OF DOMESTICATED AVIAN SPECIES 12 2 1 ALTRICIAL AND PRECOCIAL BIRDS 12 2 2 CARINATES AND RATITES 12 3 EGG FORMATION AND EGG PRODUCTION 12 3 1 OVULATION AND EGG FORMATION 12 3 2 FERTILIZATION 12 3 3 SEX DETERMINATION 12 3 4 OVIPOSITION 12 3 5 ONSET OF EGG LAYING 12 3 6 DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHICK WITHIN THE EGG 12 4 GROWTH FROM HATCHING TO MATURITY 12 4 1 GROWTH RATE FROM HATCHING 12 4 2 PROPORTIONS OF ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT TISSUES 12 4 3 BODY COMPOSITION AND PLANE OF NUTRITION 12 4 4 BODY COMPOSITION OF CULLED LAYING BIRDS 12 5 CONCLUSIONS 13 EFFICIENCY AND GROWTH 13 1 INTRODUCTION 13 2 NUMERICAL CONCEPTS OF EFFICIENCY 13 3 ENERGY AS A BASELINE FOR FEED INPUT 13 4 UNITS OF ENERGY 13 4 1 THE JOULE 13 4 2 THE CALORIE 13 5 THE GROSS ENERGY OF FEED 13 6 DEFINITIONS OF FEED ENERGY IN ANIMAL SYSTEMS 13 7 THE PARTITION OF METABOLIZABLE ENERGY IN THE GROWING ANIMAL 13 8 MAINTENANCE AND BASAL METABOLISM 13 9 THE UTILIZATION OF DIETARY ENERGY ABOVE MAINTENANCE 13 10 GROWTH RATE, FEED INTAKE AND EFFICIENCY 13 11 THE EFFECT OF CHOICE OF SLAUGHTER WEIGHT ON EFFICIENCY 13 12 ONCE-BRED GILTS AND ONCE-BRED HEIFERS 13 13 EFFICIENCY, SLAUGHTER WEIGHT AND MARKETING 14 COMPENSATORY GROWTH 14 1 INTRODUCTION 14 2 FACTORS AFFECTING COMPENSATORY GROWTH: CLASSIFICATION 14 2 1 ANIMAL FACTORS 14 2 2 NUTRITIONAL FACTORS 14 3 COMPONENTS OF COMPENSATORY GROWTH 14 3 1 INTRODUCTION 14 3 2 CHANGES IN TISSUE PROPORTIONS 14 4 COMPENSATORY GROWTH AND OVERALL EFFICIENCY 14 5 COMPENSATORY GROWTH: BASIC CONSIDERATIONS 14 6 COMPENSATORY GROWTH: PROBLEMS OF INTERPRETATION 15 GROWTH AND PUBERTY IN BREEDING ANIMALS 15 1 INTRODUCTION 15 2 THE ENDOCRINOLOGY OF PUBERTY IN THE FEMALE 15 3 THE ENDOCRINOLOGY OF PUBERTY IN THE MALE 15 4 FACTORS AFFECTING PUBERTY IN THE FEMALE 15 5 EFFECTS OF GROWTH RATE ON PUBERTY IN THE FEMALE AND MALE 15 5 1 INTRODUCTION 15 5 2 CATTLE: HEIFERS 15 5 3 CATTLE: BULLS 15 5 4 PIGS: GILTS 15 5 5 PIGS: BOARS 15 5 6 SHEEP: EWE LAMBS 15 5 7 SHEEP: RAM LAMBS 15 5 8 HORSES: FILLIES 15 5 9 HORSES: COLTS 15 5 10 FOWL: PULLETS 15 5 11 FOWL: COCKERELS 16 MEASURING AND PREDICTING GROWTH AND BODY COMPOSITION IN THE LIVE ANIMAL 16 1 INTRODUCTION 16 2 MEASURING AND PREDICTING LIVE WEIGHT AND CONFORMATION CHANGES 16 2 1 WEIGHING ANIMALS 16 2 2 MEASURING ANIMALS 16 2 3 VIDEO IMAGE ANALYSIS 16 3 MEASURING AND PREDICTING BODY COMPOSITION IN LIVE ANIMALS 16 3 1 PREDICTIONS BASED ON LIVE WEIGHT 16 3 2 VISUAL APPRAISAL OF LIVE ANIMAL CONFORMATION AND PREDICTION OF BODY COMPOSITION 16 3 3 DILUTION TECHNIQUES 16 3 4 NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS 16 3 5 PROBES 16 3 6 BALANCE STUDIES 16 3 7 X-RAY COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY 16 3 8 NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE 16 3 9 ULTRASONIC TECHNIQUES 16 3 10 BIOELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE ANALYSIS 16 3 11 CELL SIZE IN ADIPOSE TISSUE 16 3 12 URINARY CREATININE EXCRETION 17 MEASUREMENTS ON THE CARCASS 17 1 INTRODUCTION 17 2 CARCASS WEIGHT AND KILLING-OUT (OR DRESSING-OUT) PROPORTION 17 3 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OR DENSITY 17 4 MEASUREMENTS TAKEN BY RULER AND PROBE VISUAL APPRAISAL (SCORING) JOINTING AND DISSECTION TECHNIQUES ULTRASONIC DEVICES VIDEO IMAGE ANALYSIS BIOELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE ANALYSIS 17 10 ELECTROMAGNETIC SCANNING 18 ‘GROWTH PROMOTERS’, PERFORMANCE ENHANCERS, FEED ADDITIVES AND ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES 18 1 INTRODUCTION 18 2 CLASSIFICATION OF GROWTH PROMOTERS AND PERFORMANCE ENHANCERS 18 3 HISTORICAL NOTE 18 3 1 DISCOVERY 18 3 2 CONCERNS 18 3 3 THE SITUATION SINCE 18 3 4 HOW DO ANTIBIOTICS AND ANTIBACTERIALS WORK? 18 4 ADDITIVES WITH THE POTENTIAL TO REPLACE ANTIBIOTICS IN THE FEEDS OF PIGS AND PRE-RUMINANT RUMINANTS 18 4 1 PROBIOTICS 18 4 2 CHEMICAL PROBIOSIS 18 4 3 DIET PRE-FERMENTATION 18 4 4 ORGANIC ACIDS 18 4 5 INORGANIC ACIDS 18 4 6 ENZYMES 18 4 7 NUTRACEUTICALS 18 4 8 ZEOLITES AND CLAY MINERALS 18 4 9 INERT ORGANIC SUBSTANCES 18 4 10 ANTIBACTERIALS BASED ON INORGANIC SALTS 18 4 11 NITRATES 18 4 12 FERMENTABLE SUBSTRATES: PREBIOTICS, NUTRIBIOTICS AND SYNBIOTICS 18 4 13 PHYSIOLOGICAL REGULATORS 18 5 OVERVIEW OF GROWTH PROMOTION 18 6 ALTERNATIVES: IMMUNIZATION AND IMMUNO-NUTRITION 18 7 ALTERNATIVES: NEW SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION 18 7 1 OPTIMAL NUTRITION 18 8 CONCLUSIONS 19 THE FUTURE 19 1 INTRODUCTION 19 2 FUTURE DEMAND FOR MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS 19 2 1 CHANGE IN ETHICAL VIEWS 19 2 2 CHANGES IN THE PERCEPTION OF MEAT AS A HEALTHY FOOD 19 3 THE FUTURE POSSIBILITIES FOR TECHNICAL ADVANCE 19 3 1 NUTRITION 19 3 2 TECHNOLOGY AND GROWTH 19 3 3 HEALTH OF THOSE ENGAGED IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION 19 3 4 BREEDING 19 3 5 MEAT PROCESSING AND THE IMAGE OF MEAT 19 4 GROWING ANIMALS AND GLOBAL WARMING 19 5 CONCLUSIONS