CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT AGRICULTURE: A GLOBAL REVIEW OF GREENHOUSE FOOD PRODUCTION

By H. FADAS

CONTENTS WORLD ENERGY NEEDS: A ROLE FOR COAL IN THE ENERGY MIX INTRODUCTION WHAT IS COAL? COAL FORMATION COAL CLASSIFICATION WHERE IS COAL FOUND? COAL EXPLORATION COAL MINING COAL PREPARATION COAL TRANSPORTATION COAL MINING AND THE ENVIRONMENT MINE REHABILITATION MINING SAFETY THE GLOBAL COAL MARKET COAL PRODUCTION COAL CONSUMPTION COAL TRADE HOW IS COAL USED? COAL AND ELECTRICITY COAL’S ROLE IN DELIVERING MODERN INFRASTRUCTURE STEEL PRODUCTION CEMENT PRODUCTION COAL LIQUEFACTION OTHER USES OF COAL MEETING FUTURE ENERGY DEMAND COAL AS AN IMPORTANT ELEMENT IN THE BALANCED ENERGY MIX COAL AS A GUARANTOR OF ENERGY SECURITY ON-GRID ELECTRICITY COAL AND THE ENVIRONMENT E?CIENCY IMPROVEMENTS WHAT CAN BE ACHIEVED? CARBON CAPTURE, UTILISATION AND STORAGE (CCUS) DEVELOPMENT VITAL TO MEETING CLIMATE GOALS COAL AND OUR ENERGY FUTURE REFERENCES BRIEF HISTORY OF COAL MINING COAL MINING METHODS SURFACE MINING UNDERGROUND MINING NOVEL METHODS COAL TRANSPORTATION AND UTILIZATION COAL TRANSPORTATION METHODS COAL UTILIZATION CURRENT STATUS OF COAL MINING FUTURE TRENDS COAL-FIRED POWER STATIONS PRE-TREATMENT FOR POWER GENERATION CONVENTIONAL GASIFICATION COMBUSTION TECHNOLOGIES BOILERS AND STEAM GENERATORS INTEGRATED GASIFIER COMBINED-CYCLE SOLID OXIDISERS AND CHEMICAL LOOPING COAL-FIRED POWER STATIONS IN THE 21ST CENTURY COMMITTED CARBON EMISSIONS AND STRANDED ASSETS WATER CONSUMPTION POLLUTION FORMATION CLIMATE STRESSES GENERATING FLEXIBILITY AND DISPATCH MERIT ORDER OPERATING AND CAPITAL EXPENSES CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE (CCS) RETROFITABILITY AVAILABILITY OF FINANCE CONCLUSION THE LIFE CYCLE OF COAL AND ASSOCIATED HEALTH IMPACTS MINING ACCIDENTS COAL-WORKER’S PNEUMOCONIOSIS (CWP) OR BLACK LUNG DISEASE COAL MINING E?ECTS ON WATER QUALITY E?ECTS OF MINING ON THE HEALTH OF RESIDENTS IN ADJACENT COMMUNITIES COAL PREPARATION AND TRANSPORT COAL CLEANING; MINING WASTES COAL WASTE ACCIDENTS COAL SHIPMENT COMBUSTION A BRIEF HISTORY OF COAL COMBUSTION AND HEALTH PARTICULATE MATTER OZONE OXIDES OF NITROGEN AND OXIDES OF SULFUR MERCURY COSTS OF BURNING COAL POST-COMBUSTION WASTE: COAL ASH COAL ASH DEFINED COAL ASH TOXICITY COAL ASH: A HIGH-VOLUME WASTE COAL ASH PERSISTENCE AND MOBILITY IN THE ENVIRONMENT DISPOSAL OF COAL ASH COMMON DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES DILUTION AS DISPOSAL ‘‘BENEFICIAL REUSE’’ INSTEAD OF DISPOSAL HUMAN EXPOSURE TO COAL ASH: PATHWAYS SURFACE WATER PATHWAY LEACHING INTO GROUNDWATER AIRBORNE COAL ASH EXPOSURE VIA CONTAMINATED FISH EXPOSURE VIA DRINKING WATER COAL ASH ‘‘DAMAGE CASES’’ PROTECTING HUMAN HEALTH FROM COAL ASH VULNERABLE POPULATIONS BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGIES COAL ASH REGULATION COAL AND CLIMATE CHANGE COAL AND GREENHOUSE GASES CLIMATE CHANGE AND HEALTH COAL, HUMAN HEALTH AND THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE THE STATE OF COAL REGULATION AROUND THE WORLD: INSIGHTS FROM THE UNITED STATES, CHINA, GERMANY AND INDIA GLOBAL COAL MARKET TRENDS WILL CLIMATE COMMITMENTS DRIVE A SHIFT AWAY FROM COAL? NATIONAL POLICIES AND POLICY DRIVERS RELATED TO COAL OPPOSITION TO COAL REGULATION TRANSITION ASSISTANCE CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE: THE FUTURE OF COAL? COAL REGULATION IN THE UNITED STATES: A POLITICAL FOOTBALL REGULATING CO2 EMISSIONS FROM COAL: THE EMBATTLED ‘‘CLEAN POWER PLAN’’ THE LEGAL ROUTE TO FEDERAL REGULATION THE CLEAN POWER PLAN THE LITIGATION TRUMP ADMINISTRATION REGIONAL/STATE REGULATION OF CO2 EMISSIONS FROM COAL FIRED PLANTS REGULATION OF MERCURY AND OTHER AIR TOXICS FROM COAL PLANTS: WHAT A LONG, STRANGE TRIP IT’S BEEN ACID RAIN: A NOTABLE SUCCESS STORY LIQUID FUELS AND CHEMICAL FEEDSTOCKS ORGANIC STRUCTURE OF COAL LIQUEFACTION ROUTES HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CURRENT SITUATION SCOPE COAL GASIFICATION AND FISCHER–TROPSCH SYNTHESIS (INDIRECT LIQUEFACTION) WATER–GAS SHIFT REACTION UNDERGROUND COAL GASIFICATION (UCG) SYNGAS CONVERSION STAGING DIRECT LIQUEFACTION AND PRIMARY CONVERSION CONCEPT REACTION MECHANISMS SOLVENTS CATALYSIS IMPACT OF COAL STRUCTURE ON CONVERSION AND PRODUCT COMPOSITION UPGRADING INTERMEDIATE PRODUCTS TO TRANSPORT FUELS AND CHEMICALS HYDROPROCESSING HEAVY COAL LIQUIDS REFINED DISTILLATE FRACTIONS OTHER PROCESS VARIANTS NON-DONOR SOLVENTS DIRECT HYDROGENATION INTEGRATED PROCESSING WITH OTHER FEEDSTOCKS CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE AND CARBON CAPTURE, UTILISATION AND STORAGE A BRIEF HISTORY OF GLOBAL WARMING SCIENCE, STARTING WITH TYNDALL AND ARRHENIUS EARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE (CCS) TECHNOLOGY AN OUTLINE OF THE VARIOUS ROUTES FOR CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE (CCS) INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE DEPLOYMENT OF CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE (CCS) PRE-COMBUSTION, POST-COMBUSTION AND OXY-FUEL TECHNOLOGIES AN EXAMINATION OF THE POTENTIAL OF PRE-COMBUSTION ROUTES POST-COMBUSTION OPTIONS OXY-FUEL TECHNOLOGY CHEMICAL LOOPING AND CALCIUM LOOPING TECHNOLOGIES STATE OF THE ART CHEMICAL LOOPING TECHNOLOGY STATE OF THE ART CALCIUM LOOPING TECHNOLOGY HYBRID CHEMICAL AND CALCIUM LOOPING TECHNOLOGIES ALTERNATIVE SOLID CO2 CAPTURE APPROACHES BIOMASS WITH CO2 COMBUSTION (BIO-CCS) POTENTIAL FOR USING BIOMASS IN NEGATIVE CO2 SCHEMES EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL BIO-CCS TECHNOLOGY AIR CAPTURE, MINERALISATION AND CO2 UTILISATION (CCUS) AN EVALUATION OF AIR CAPTURE OPTIONS A PRIMER ON MINERALISATION AND ITS POTENTIAL CO2 UTILISATION AND ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS