THE CHEMISTRY OF FARM PRACTICE
Integrating Technologies to Minimize Environmental Impacts 1 1 Introduction 1 2 Developments and Emerging Trends in the Crop Protection Industry 3 3 Improving the Sustainability of Crop Production 6 31 Improved Properties of Synthetic Pesticides 7 32 Emerging Technologies 7 33 Enhanced Application Technologies 10 34 Better Land Management 12 4 Role of Regulation in Technology Development 13 Acknowledgements 15 References 15 The Environmental Impact of Fertiliser Nutrients on Freshwater 20 1 Introduction 20 2 The Requirements and Utilisation of N and P by Different Crops 21 3 The Loss, Impact and Management of Fertiliser N and P from Land to Water 26 31 The Availability of Nutrient Sources to Loss 26 32 Pathways of Nutrient Loss 29 33 Attenuation 30 34 Processing of N and P in Freshwaters 32 35 Strategies to Mitigate N and P Losses 33 4 Future Directions and Research Gaps 35 Acknowledgements 38 References 38 Pesticides 45 1 Introduction 45 2 Pesticides and Terrestrial Wildlife 46 21 Introduction 46 22 Pesticide Use and Impacts on Terrestrial Biodiversity: Past and Present 47 23 Wildlife Protection Goals in Pesticide Regulation 48 24 Direct Effects 51 25 Indirect Effects 55 26 Pesticides and Protected Sites and Habitats 57 27 Conclusion 59 3 Pesticide Resistance 61 31 Introduction 61 32 Herbicide Resistance 61 33 Fungicide Resistance 63 34 Insecticide Resistance 65 35 Managing Resistance 66 4 Pesticides in Water 67 41 What Is the Issue? 67 42 Pesticide Movement to Water 70 43 Regulatory Control 76 44 Mitigation 78 45 Looking Ahead: Do We Have All the Answers? 83 Acknowledgements 84 References 84 Agroecology and Organic Farming as Approaches to Reducing the Environmental Impacts of Agricultural Chemicals 94 1 Introduction 95 2 What are Agroecology and Organic Farming? 95 21 Agroecology 95 22 Organic Farming 96 3 Typical Practices and Systems 98 31 What Role Does Chemistry Play in these Approaches? 98 32 Restricting Inputs or Redesigning Systems? 100 4 Performance of Agroecological Approaches Relative to Conventional Intensive Systems 101 41 Biodiversity 101 42 Resource Use and Emissions 102 43 Productivity 105 44 Financial Viability 107 5 Conclusions 109 Acknowledgements 109 References 109 Crop Biotechnology for Weed and Insect Control 114 1 Global Trends of GM Crop Adoption 114 2 Herbicide Tolerance 118 21 A Driver for Changing Agronomic Practices 118 22 Conservation Tillage Agriculture 118 23 Managing Resistance 119 3 Pest/Disease Resistance 120 31 Bt Genes and Toxins 120 32 Reduction in Insecticide Use 121 33 Evolution of Insect Resistance to Cry Toxins 122 4 What Does the Future Hold? 124 41 Regulatory Hurdles and Asynchronous Approvals 124 42 What is the Future for Crop Biotechnology? 125 References 126 Aquaculture 128 1 Aquaculture – A Modern Food Industry with a Long History 129 11 Our Seas and Oceans as a Source of Food 129 12 A Changing Landscape 131 13 A Long History 132 14 The Present Day 136 2 Challenges 137 3 The Use of Chemicals for Pest/Disease/Parasite Control 142 31 The Requirement to Use Pesticides 142 32 Sea Lice Treatments in Salmon Aquaculture 149 33 Non-salmonid Aquaculture 152 34 Anti-fouling Compounds 153 35 Disinfectants 157 4 Potential Impacts on the Environment and Non-target Species 157 5 Strategies to Reduce Chemical Usage 163 51 Testing the Products 163 52 Changes to Husbandry 163 53 Minimising Infection Pressure by Cooperation Between Farms within a Geographically Connected Area 165 54 Bioremediation 166 55 Using Natural Compounds which are Environmentally Benign 166 56 Improving the Host’s Resistance to Disease 166 57 Natural Predators 167 6 Conclusions 169 Acknowledgements 169 References 169 Horticulture 176 1 Introduction 176 2 Overview 178 21 Fertilisers 178 22 Soil Health 179 23 Pests, Diseases and Weeds 180 24 Water Use and Water Quality 185 3 Case Studies 186 31 Case Study 1: Carrot Production in the UK 186 32 Case Study 2: Integrated Pest and Disease Management (IPDM) in Apple Orchards 192 4 Future Perspectives 209 5 Conclusion 210 Acknowledgements 210 References 210