ELEMENTS OF PROPULSION: GAS TURBINES AND ROCKETS
AIRCRAFT ENGINES – A REVIEW INTRODUCTION AEROTHERMODYNAMICS OF WORKING FLUID ISENTROPIC PROCESS AND ISENTROPIC FLOW CONSERVATION OF MASS CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM CONSERVATION OF ENERGY SPEED OF SOUND AND MACH NUMBER STAGNATION STATE THRUST AND SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION TAKEOFF THRUST INSTALLED THRUST – SOME BOOKKEEPING ISSUES ON THRUST AND DRAG AIR?BREATHING ENGINE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS 1 3 3 1 SPECIFIC THRUST 1 3 3 2 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION AND SPECIFIC IMPULSE THERMAL AND PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY THERMAL EFFICIENCY PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY ENGINE OVERALL EFFICIENCY AND ITS IMPACT ON AIRCRAFT RANGE AND ENDURANCE GAS GENERATOR ENGINE COMPONENTS THE INLET THE NOZZLE THE COMPRESSOR THE COMBUSTOR THE TURBINE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A TURBOJET ENGINE TURBOJET ENGINE WITH AN AFTERBURNER INTRODUCTION ANALYSIS TURBOFAN ENGINE ANALYSIS OF A SEPARATE?EXHAUST TURBOFAN ENGINE THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF A TURBOFAN ENGINE PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY OF A TURBOFAN ENGINE ULTRA?HIGH BYPASS (UHB) GEARED TURBOFAN ENGINES ANALYSIS OF MIXED?EXHAUST TURBOFAN ENGINES WITH AFTERBURNERS 1 9 6 1 MIXER 1 9 6 2 MIXED?TURBOFAN CYCLE ANALYSIS 1 9 6 3 SOLUTION PROCEDURE TURBOPROP ENGINE TURBOPROP CYCLE ANALYSIS 1 10 2 1 THE NEW PARAMETERS 1 10 2 2 DESIGN?POINT ANALYSIS 1 10 2 3 OPTIMUM POWER SPLIT BETWEEN THE PROPELLER AND THE JET 1 10 2 4 ADVANCED PROPELLER: PROP?FAN HIGH?SPEED AIR?BREATHING ENGINES SUPERSONIC COMBUSTION RAMJET 1 11 1 1 INLET ANALYSIS 1 11 1 2 SCRAMJET COMBUSTOR 1 11 1 3 SCRAMJET NOZZLE ROCKET?BASED AIRBREATHING PROPULSION SUMMARY REFERENCES AIRCRAFT AERODYNAMICS – A REVIEW SIMILARITY PARAMETERS IN COMPRESSIBLE FLOW: FLIGHT VS WIND TUNNEL PHYSICAL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS ON A SOLID WALL (IN CONTINUUM MECHANICS) PROFILE AND PARASITE DRAG BOUNDARY LAYERS 2 4 1 1 CASE 1: INCOMPRESSIBLE LAMINAR FLOW 2 4 1 2 CASE 2: LAMINAR COMPRESSIBLE BOUNDARY LAYERS 2 4 1 3 CASE 3: TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYERS 2 4 1 4 CASE 4: TRANSITION PROFILE DRAG OF AN AIRFOIL DRAG DUE TO LIFT CLASSICAL THEORY OPTIMAL SPANLOADING: THE CASE OF BELL SPANLOAD WAVES IN SUPERSONIC FLOW SPEED OF SOUND NORMAL SHOCK WAVE OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVES EXPANSION WAVES COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECTS AND CRITICAL MACH NUMBER DRAG DIVERGENCE PHENOMENON AND SUPERCRITICAL AIRFOIL WING SWEEP DELTA WING AERODYNAMICS VORTEX BREAKDOWN AREA?RULE IN TRANSONIC AIRCRAFT OPTIMUM SHAPE FOR SLENDER BODY OF REVOLUTION OF LENGTH ? IN SUPERSONIC FLOW SEARS?HAACK BODY VON KARMAN OGIVE OF LENGTH ? AND BASE AREA, S(?), FOR MINIMUM AXISYMMETRIC NOSE WAVE DRAG HIGH?LIFT DEVICES: MULTI?ELEMENT AIRFOILS POWERED LIFT AND STOL AIRCRAFT LAMINAR FLOW CONTROL, LFC AERODYNAMIC FIGURES OF MERIT ADVANCED AIRCRAFT DESIGNS AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR LEANER, GREENER AVIATION SUMMARY UNDERSTANDING AVIATION’S IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT COMBUSTION EMISSIONS GREENHOUSE GASES CARBON MONOXIDE, CO, AND UNBURNED HYDROCARBONS, UHC OXIDES OF NITROGEN, NOX IMPACT OF NO ON OZONE IN LOWER AND UPPER ATMOSPHERE LOWER ATMOSPHERE UPPER ATMOSPHERE IMPACT OF NOX EMISSIONS ON SURFACE AIR QUALITY SOOT/SMOKE AND PARTICULATE MATTER (PM) CONTRAILS, CIRRUS CLOUDS, AND IMPACT ON CLIMATE ENGINE EMISSION STANDARDS LOW?EMISSION COMBUSTORS AVIATION FUELS INTERIM SUMMARY ON COMBUSTION EMISSION IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT AVIATION IMPACT ON CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSION: QUANTIFIED NOISE GENERAL DISCUSSION SOUND INTENSITY ACOUSTIC POWER LEVELS AND DECIBELS SOUND POWER LEVEL IN DECIBELS, DB SOUND INTENSITY LEVEL IN DECIBELS, DB SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL IN DECIBELS, DB MULTIPLE SOURCES OVERALL SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL IN DECIBELS, DB 3 8 1 10 OCTAVE BAND, ONE?THIRD OCTAVE BAND, AND TUNABLE FILTERS 3 8 1 11 ADDING AND SUBTRACTING NOISE SOURCES 3 8 1 12 WEIGHTING 3 8 1 13 EFFECTIVE PERCEIVED NOISE LEVEL (EPNL), DB, AND OTHER METRICS 3 8 1 14 PULSATING SPHERE: MODEL OF A MONOPOLE 3 8 1 15 TWO MONOPOLES: MODEL OF A DIPOLE 3 8 1 16 TWO DIPOLES: MODEL OF QUADRUPOLE SOURCES OF NOISE NEAR AIRPORTS ENGINE NOISE SUBSONIC JET NOISE SUPERSONIC JET NOISE ENGINE NOISE DIRECTIVITY PATTERN NOISE REDUCTION AT THE SOURCE WING SHIELDING FAN NOISE REDUCTION SUBSONIC JET NOISE MITIGATION 3 10 3 1 CHEVRON NOZZLE 3 10 3 2 ACOUSTIC LINER IN EXHAUST CORE SUPERSONIC JET NOISE REDUCTION SONIC BOOM AIRCRAFT NOISE CERTIFICATION NASA’S VISION: QUIET GREEN TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY FAA’S VISION: NEXTGEN TECHNOLOGY THE EUROPEAN VISION FOR SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUTURE FUELS AND ENERGY SOURCES IN SUSTAINABLE AVIATION ALTERNATIVE JET FUELS (AJFS) CHOICE OF FEEDSTOCK CONVERSION PATHWAYS TO JET FUEL AJF EVALUATION AND CERTIFICATION/QUALIFICATION IMPACT OF BIOFUEL ON EMISSIONS ADVANCED BIOFUEL PRODUCTION LIFECYCLE ASSESSMENT OF BIO?BASED AVIATION FUEL CONVERSION OF BIO?CROPS TO ELECTRICITY LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS, LNG COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GAS AND LNG HYDROGEN HYDROGEN PRODUCTION HYDROGEN DELIVERY AND STORAGE GRAVIMETRIC AND VOLUMETRIC ENERGY DENSITY AND LIQUID FUEL COST BATTERY SYSTEMS BATTERY ENERGY DENSITY OPEN?CYCLE BATTERY SYSTEMS CHARGING BATTERIES IN FLIGHT: TWO EXAMPLES ALL?ELECTRIC AIRCRAFT: VOLTAIR CONCEPT PLATFORM FUEL CELL FUELS FOR THE COMPACT FUSION REACTOR (CFR) PROMISING TECHNOLOGIES IN PROPULSION AND POWER GAS TURBINE ENGINE BRAYTON CYCLE: SIMPLE GAS TURBINE ENGINE DISTRIBUTED COMBUSTION CONCEPTS IN ADVANCED GAS TURBINE ENGINE CORE MULTIFUEL (CRYOGENIC?KEROSENE), HYBRID PROPULSION CONCEPT INTERCOOLED AND RECUPERATED TURBOFAN ENGINES ACTIVE CORE CONCEPTS TOPPING CYCLE: WAVE ROTOR COMBUSTION PULSE DETONATION ENGINE (PDE) HUMPHREY CYCLE VS BRAYTON: THERMODYNAMICS IDEALIZED LABORATORY PDE: THRUST TUBE PULSE DETONATION RAMJETS TURBOFAN ENGINE WITH PDE PULSE DETONATION ROCKET ENGINE (PDRE) VEHICLE?LEVEL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF PDE BOUNDARY?LAYER INGESTION (BLI) AND DISTRIBUTED PROPULSION (DP) CONCEPT 5 10 1 AIRCRAFT DRAG REDUCTION THROUGH BLI 5 10 2 AIRCRAFT NOISE REDUCTION: ADVANCED CONCEPTS 5 10 3 MULTIDISCIPLINARY DESIGN OPTIMIZATION (MDO) OF A BWB AIRCRAFT WITH BLI DISTRIBUTED PROPULSION CONCEPT IN EARLY AVIATION DISTRIBUTED PROPULSION IN MODERN AVIATION 5 12 1 OPTIMAL NUMBER OF PROPULSORS IN DISTRIBUTED PROPULSION 5 12 2 OPTIMAL PROPULSOR TYPES IN DISTRIBUTED PROPULSION INTERIM SUMMARY ON ELECTRIC PROPULSION (EP) SYNERGETIC AIR?BREATHING ROCKET ENGINE; SABRE COMPACT FUSION REACTOR: THE PATH TO CLEAN, UNLIMITED ENERGY AIRCRAFT CONFIGURATIONS USING ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS REFERENCES PATHWAYS TO SUSTAINABLE AVIATION PATHWAYS TO CERTIFICATION ENERGY PATHWAYS IN SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUTURE OF GT ENGINES 1 1 INTRODUCTION A BRIEF REVIEW OF AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINE PROPULSION IS PRESENTED IN CHAPTER 1 MOST TOPICS ARE FUNDAMENTAL TO UNDERGRADUATE PROPULSION EDUCATION AND THUS SERVE AS A REFRESHER BEFORE WE EMBARK ON MORE ADVANCED PROPULSION CONCEPTS AIRCRAFT PROPULSION, 2ND EDITION, BY THE AUTHOR, PROVIDES THE BULK OF THE MATERIAL PRESENTED IN THIS REVIEW CHAPTER 1 2 AEROTHERMODYNAMICS OF WORKING FLUID IN GAS TURBINE (GT) ENGINES THE WORKING FLUID IS TREATED AS PERFECT GAS, OFTEN AIR, WHICH BEHAVES AS CONTINUUM RATHER THAN INDIVIDUAL MOLECULES THE DENSITY OF THE GAS, ?, IS A FLUID PROPERTY THAT IS DEFINED ON THE BASIS OF CONTINUUM THE PERFECT GAS LAW THAT RELATES THE PRESSURE, DENSITY, AND THE ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE OF THE GAS MAY BE DERIVED RIGOROUSLY FROM THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES IT IS STATED HERE WITHOUT PROOF: P RT (1 1) WHERE R IS KNOWN AS THE GAS CONSTANT, WHICH IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO THE MOLECULAR MASS OF THE GAS, I E R R MW (1 2A) WHERE R IS THE UNIVERSAL GAS CONSTANT EXPRESSED IN TWO SYSTEMS OF UNITS: R J KMOL K R X FT LBF SLUG MOL R 8 4 97