Women in Changing Society
Chapter 1 Women in the Colonial Era ................................................................. 1 Colonialism and Gender ...........................................................................1 Female Paradigms and Roles ..................................................................3 Widows and Property Rights ...................................................................4 Sikhism and Women ................................................................................5 Devadasis: From Temple to Court in South India .....................................7 Women Court Poets ................................................................................8 Philanthropic Queens ..............................................................................9 Female Servitude: ‘‘Stri-Dharmapadhati’’ ............................................. 10 Women in the Portuguese Estado .......................................................... 11 Intermarriage Policy.............................................................................. 11 Gender, Sect, and Race in the Estado .................................................... 13 Inquisition and Goan Women ................................................................. 14 Portuguese Women Settlers in Goa ....................................................... 15 Women in Multiethnic Goa .................................................................... 16 Female Education and Rights in Goa ..................................................... 17 Women in the British Empire ................................................................. 18 Wars and Women’s Lives ..................................................................... 18 Colonial Rulers, Laws, and Indian Women ............................................ 19 A Dual Patriarchy: British Officials and Indian Reformers .................... 20 Women’s Education .............................................................................. 22 Colonial Laws and Women.................................................................... 27 Working Women ................................................................................... 34 Eurasians: Maternal Indian Ancestry ..................................................... 40 vi Chapter 2 Women’s Empowerment ................................................................... 43 Methods which Help to Empower Women ............................................ 43 The Role of Education .......................................................................... 44 The Internet as a Tool of Empowerment ............................................... 45 Barriers ................................................................................................. 45 Measurement ........................................................................................ 46 Importance of Women in Societies ........................................................ 46 Women’s Development Initiatives in Political System ............................ 47 Women in the Political System .............................................................. 47 Representation of Women in Local Self-government ............................. 49 On the Road to Women’s Reservation in Parliament and Legislatures ... 52 Women’s Commission: An Overview..................................................... 56 Promoting Gender Awareness In the Middle of Local People’s Representatives .................................................................................... 59 Women’s Empowerment and Social Legislation..................................... 60 Use of Laws ......................................................................................... 60 Use of Legal and Judicial Procedures ................................................... 65 Legal Support ....................................................................................... 67 Role of Police, Judiciary, Social Workers and Family Courts .................. 68 Promoting Gender-sensitive Legal and Judicial System: Alternative Systems of Redressal ............................................................................ 70 Educational Status of Women in India: An Overview............................. 73 Factors Affecting Girl’s Education......................................................... 75 Policies for Women’s Education ............................................................ 80 Women’s Development Initiatives in Health .......................................... 81 Meaning of Development Initiatives ...................................................... 81 Rural and Urban Initiatives of GOs/ VOs for Women and Girls ............. 83 Training of Local Women as Health Functionaries ................................. 86 Creating Gender Sensitive Health Programmes ..................................... 87 Role of Social Workers ......................................................................... 88 Developing a Framework for Gender Aware Social Work Intervention .. 91 Approaches to Gender-aware Social Work Intervention ........................ 91 Criteria for Assessment and Evaluation ................................................. 94 Audit and Evaluation ............................................................................. 95 Implementation Approaches .................................................................. 97 Chapter 3 Women in Society ............................................................................ 100 Women in Development ...................................................................... 100 Activities ............................................................................................. 101 Criticism ............................................................................................. 102 Women in Positions of Power ............................................................. 102 Position of Power ............................................................................... 102 Gender as a Factor ............................................................................. 102 vii Other Factors ..................................................................................... 103 Traditional Roles and Stereotypes ........................................................ 103 Government ........................................................................................ 104 Industry and Business ......................................................................... 105 Academia ........................................................................................... 107 Example of Success ............................................................................ 107 Contemporary Examples ..................................................................... 108 Female Entrepreneurs ......................................................................... 108 Definition ............................................................................................ 109 History ................................................................................................ 110 Demographics ..................................................................................... 113 International Implications .................................................................... 113 Present Challenges ............................................................................. 114 Encouragement ................................................................................... 116 Reasons for Launching Firms .............................................................. 117 Feminism ............................................................................................ 117 Gender Representation on Corporate Boards of Directors ................... 117 Rationale Behind Gender Diversity on Corporate Boards .................... 118 Determinants of Gender Diversity on Corporate Boards ...................... 118 Effects of Gender Diversity on Corporate Boards ............................... 119 Current landscape ............................................................................... 120 Encouraging Gender Diversity on Corporate Boards ........................... 121 The Gender Pay Gap on Corporate Boards ......................................... 124 Female Chief Executive Officers ........................................................ 124 Women in Business ............................................................................. 125 Women in Corporate Leadership ......................................................... 125 Women as Entrepreneurs .................................................................... 126 Women and Animal Advocacy ............................................................ 128 History ................................................................................................ 128 Modern Women and Animal Advocacy ............................................... 129 Chapter 4 Feminism and Female Education ................................................... 132 Feminism ............................................................................................ 132 History ................................................................................................ 133 Feminist Theory .................................................................................. 157 Movements and Ideologies .................................................................. 158 Demographics ..................................................................................... 159 Sexuality ............................................................................................. 160 Science ............................................................................................... 161 Culture ................................................................................................ 162 Politics ................................................................................................ 165 Societal Impact ................................................................................... 167 Reactions ............................................................................................ 171 viii Female Education ............................................................................... 172 Issues ................................................................................................. 173 History ................................................................................................ 174 Catholic Tradition ................................................................................ 190 Chapter 5 Women’s Suffrage and Women in Law........................................... 191 Women’s Suffrage .............................................................................. 191 History ................................................................................................ 192 Suffrage Movements .......................................................................... 195 By Country ......................................................................................... 196 Africa ................................................................................................. 196 Asia .................................................................................................... 197 Europe ................................................................................................ 200 North America .................................................................................... 209 Latin America ..................................................................................... 240 Women’s Suffrage in Non-Religious Organizations .............................. 245 Women’s Suffrage in Religions ............................................................ 246 Catholicism ......................................................................................... 246 Islam................................................................................................... 246 Judaism............................................................................................... 246 Women in Law.................................................................................... 246 Representation and Working Conditions .............................................. 247 Women of Colour ................................................................................ 248 Organizations ...................................................................................... 249 Feminist Perspectives ......................................................................... 250 Notable Individuals .............................................................................. 252 Women in Law Enforcement............................................................... 257 Chapter 6 Women in the Military .................................................................... 262 Introduction ......................................................................................... 262 History ................................................................................................ 262 World War I ........................................................................................ 262 World War II ....................................................................................... 263 After the World Wars ......................................................................... 264 Women in Combat .............................................................................. 265 Women on Submarines ........................................................................ 269 Academic Studies ............................................................................... 270 Women in Warfare and the Military (2000–present) ............................ 270 2000 .................................................................................................... 270 2001 .................................................................................................... 271 2002 .................................................................................................... 271 2003 .................................................................................................... 271 ix 2004 .................................................................................................... 272 2005 .................................................................................................... 273 2006 .................................................................................................... 273 2007 .................................................................................................... 274 2008 .................................................................................................... 274 2009 .................................................................................................... 274 2010 .................................................................................................... 275 2011 .................................................................................................... 275 2012 .................................................................................................... 277 2013 .................................................................................................... 278 2014 .................................................................................................... 281 2015 .................................................................................................... 283 2016 .................................................................................................... 285 2017 .................................................................................................... 286